# Hospodality — Wine: grapes, regions, service and the list Source: https://www.hospodality.com · hello@hospodality.com ## Wine: grapes, regions, service and the list (200) ### French appellations #### Chablis Chablis is Chardonnay grown on the northern edge of Burgundy, closer to Champagne than to Beaune, and in service it is the white that sells itself by name. Guests order it expecting crisp, unoaked and mineral, and most of the time that is what they get, but the hierarchy matters when you are pricing a list. Petit Chablis comes from the outlying slopes and is lighter and simpler; Chablis proper is the volume tier; Premier Cru sites such as Montée de Tonnerre, Fourchaume and Vaillons add weight and length; the seven Grand Cru climats on one south-west facing hill above the town (Les Clos, Vaudésir, Valmur, Blanchot, Bougros, Preuses, Grenouilles) can take oak and a decade in bottle. The Kimmeridgian limestone and marl full of fossilised oyster shells gets mentioned a lot at the table; it is a good story but do not oversell it as tasting of seashells. Frost is the region’s recurring problem, and a bad spring can cut yields sharply, which pushes merchant prices up the following year. For the floor: the house Chablis is a natural pairing for oysters, simply grilled fish and goat’s cheese, and a Premier Cru is a sensible step-up suggestion for a table who liked the basic one. Warn guests who want buttery Chardonnay that this is the opposite style. - Grape: Chardonnay only - Four tiers: Petit Chablis, Chablis, Premier Cru, Grand Cru - Seven Grand Cru climats on one slope - Spring frost is the main vintage risk - Classic pairing: oysters and plain white fish #### Côte de Nuits villages The Côte de Nuits is the northern half of the Côte d’Or and is almost entirely red: Pinot Noir from a narrow strip of east-facing slope running south from Dijon. Knowing the main villages lets you explain a Burgundy list rather than reading it out. Gevrey-Chambertin is the largest red village and gives firm, dark-fruited wines; Morey-Saint-Denis sits between it and Chambolle and is often good value because fewer people know it; Chambolle-Musigny is the perfumed, silky one; Vougeot is dominated by the walled Clos de Vougeot Grand Cru, which is split among dozens of owners and so varies enormously; Vosne-Romanée is the most prestigious and priciest; Nuits-Saint-Georges, at the southern end, is sturdier and has no Grand Cru. Wines labelled Côte de Nuits-Villages come from lesser villages at the extremities and are a useful price point. When a guest asks why two bottles from the same village differ by a hundred pounds, the answer is usually the grower, the vineyard classification and the vintage, in that order. On a list, group by village from north to south and show the grower’s name prominently, because in Burgundy the producer is often a better guide than the appellation. - Côte de Nuits is predominantly Pinot Noir - Villages north to south: Gevrey, Morey, Chambolle, Vougeot, Vosne, Nuits - Nuits-Saint-Georges has no Grand Cru - Clos de Vougeot has many owners - Grower name matters more than village #### Côte de Beaune villages The southern half of the Côte d’Or is where Burgundy’s great whites live, though it makes plenty of red too. Aloxe-Corton and its hill of Corton give reds and the Grand Cru white Corton-Charlemagne. Savigny-lès-Beaune and Chorey-lès-Beaune are value reds for by-the-glass or entry bottles. Beaune itself is the trading town with many négociant cellars. Pommard makes structured, firmer reds; Volnay next door is lighter and more fragrant, and guests often enjoy the contrast if you pour them side by side. Then the whites: Meursault, rich and nutty with no Grand Cru; Puligny-Montrachet, tighter and more linear; Chassagne-Montrachet, which also makes good red; and the shared Grand Crus of Montrachet and Bâtard-Montrachet on the boundary between the two. Further south, Saint-Aubin, Santenay and Maranges offer the Côte de Beaune style at friendlier prices and are where a restaurant list can find margin. The sales line that works on the floor: if a guest loves Meursault but baulks at the price, offer Saint-Aubin or a Bourgogne Blanc from a good Meursault grower, which is often fruit from just outside the village boundary made by the same hands. - Home of white Burgundy’s top villages - Meursault has no Grand Cru - Montrachet straddles Puligny and Chassagne - Value: Saint-Aubin, Santenay, Maranges, Savigny - Pommard firmer, Volnay lighter #### Mâconnais and Pouilly-Fuissé South of the Côte Chalonnaise, the Mâconnais is the warmer, rounder end of Burgundian Chardonnay and the source of most affordable white Burgundy on UK lists. Mâcon-Villages and Mâcon with a village name attached, such as Mâcon-Lugny or Mâcon-Villages from a co-operative, give ripe, apple and melon fruit with little or no oak at house-wine prices. Viré-Clessé and Saint-Véran are a step up and still usually under the price of a Chablis. Pouilly-Fuissé, around the dramatic limestone outcrops of Solutré and Vergisson, is the top appellation; since the early 2020s it has had officially recognised Premier Cru vineyards, the first in the Mâconnais, which you may now see on labels. Do not confuse Pouilly-Fuissé with Pouilly-Fumé from the Loire: one is Chardonnay, the other Sauvignon Blanc, and guests mix them up constantly. A gentle correction when taking the order saves a sent-back bottle. For pairing, Mâcon whites are generous enough for roast chicken, creamy sauces and pork, and are a better match than a lean Chablis for richer dishes. - Grape: Chardonnay - Pouilly-Fuissé gained Premier Crus in the 2020s - Saint-Véran and Viré-Clessé are value steps - Do not confuse with Loire Pouilly-Fumé - Rounder, riper style than Chablis #### Côte Chalonnaise Between the Côte d’Or and the Mâconnais sits the Côte Chalonnaise, a patchier landscape of vineyards among farmland, and a source of honest Burgundy without Côte d’Or prices. Its five main village appellations are each worth knowing. Bouzeron is unusual in being an appellation for Aligoté, the other white Burgundy grape, giving a sharper, more citrus wine. Rully makes both colours and is known for whites and for Crémant de Bourgogne base wine. Mercurey is the largest and mostly red, with a sturdy, slightly rustic Pinot Noir. Givry is red-dominated and lighter. Montagny is white only and has a large number of vineyards entitled to Premier Cru. For a restaurant, these appellations fill the gap between generic Bourgogne Rouge and Blanc and village wines from Beaune or Nuits: they let you offer a recognisably Burgundian bottle in the mid-price bracket, and they are honest pairings for bistro food such as coq au vin, jambon persillé and roast poultry. When selling, frame them as the same grapes and the same traditions as the famous villages, made by many of the same houses. - Five villages: Bouzeron, Rully, Mercurey, Givry, Montagny - Bouzeron is Aligoté - Montagny is white only - Mercurey is the largest, mostly red - Mid-price Burgundy for lists #### Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé These two appellations face each other across the Loire in the eastern Centre-Loire and make the benchmark Sauvignon Blanc of France. Sancerre sits on the west bank on a mix of limestone, flinty silex and chalky marl known locally as terres blanches; Pouilly-Fumé is on the east bank around Pouilly-sur-Loire, with similar soils and a reputation for a smoky, gunflint edge, though in a blind tasting most people cannot reliably tell them apart. Sancerre also makes red and rosé from Pinot Noir, which is light and fragrant and increasingly good in warmer vintages. Sancerre is one of the most requested names on any UK list, which means prices are high relative to quality at the bottom end. Neighbouring appellations give you alternatives: Menetou-Salon, Quincy, Reuilly and Coteaux du Giennois make similar Sauvignon at lower prices. A useful floor tactic is to list a Menetou-Salon next to the Sancerre and describe it honestly as the next village over. Guests who order Sancerre expecting Marlborough-style tropical fruit may find it lean; check what they usually drink. - Grape: Sauvignon Blanc (Pinot Noir for Sancerre red and rosé) - Soils: limestone, silex flint, terres blanches - Neighbours: Menetou-Salon, Quincy, Reuilly - Pouilly-Fumé is not Pouilly-Fuissé - High demand keeps entry prices high #### Muscadet Muscadet is made from Melon de Bourgogne near Nantes, where the Loire meets the Atlantic, and it is the most underpriced white in many restaurants’ cellars. The basic appellation is Muscadet; Muscadet Sèvre et Maine is the largest and best-known sub-region. The phrase sur lie on the label means the wine was kept on its fine lees through winter and bottled from them in the spring, giving a slight texture, a little spritz and a yeasty, saline character. The best growers now make single-site wines under the cru communal system, with names such as Clisson, Gorges and Le Pallet, which require long lees ageing and can age for many years. For a seafood restaurant or anyone with oysters on the menu, a good Muscadet is the obvious match and costs a fraction of Chablis. Selling it can need a nudge, because some guests remember thin, cheap versions from decades ago. A taste at the table usually does the job. Expect bright acidity, modest alcohol around 12 per cent and flavours of lemon, green apple and sea spray rather than fruitiness. - Grape: Melon de Bourgogne - Sur lie means aged on lees until bottling - Cru communal wines need long lees ageing - Low alcohol, high acidity - Classic oyster and moules pairing #### Vouvray and Montlouis Vouvray, east of Tours, and Montlouis-sur-Loire across the river are the heartland of Loire Chenin Blanc, and they are confusing on a list because one appellation covers every sweetness level and also sparkling. Sec is dry; demi-sec is off-dry with noticeable sweetness; moelleux is sweet; and in great years some growers make liquoreux, very sweet wines with botrytis. Pétillant and mousseux are the sparkling versions, and a large share of Vouvray is in fact sparkling. Labels do not always state the style clearly, so the sommelier or list must. The tuffeau limestone of the region, the same soft stone carved into the cellars in the cliffs, gives the wines high acidity, which is why even sweet Vouvray tastes balanced and can age for decades. Montlouis is generally a little lighter and is often better value. On the floor, Chenin’s honey, quince and wet-wool notes appeal to adventurous drinkers; demi-sec is a brilliant pairing for pork with apples, spiced dishes and blue cheese. Always state the sweetness level when describing the wine to avoid a surprised guest. - Grape: Chenin Blanc - Styles: sec, demi-sec, moelleux, sparkling - Labels may not show sweetness clearly - Tuffeau limestone and cave cellars - Montlouis is the value neighbour #### Savennières and Anjou whites Further west in Anjou, Chenin Blanc takes a more serious, dry and structured form. Savennières, a small appellation on steep schist slopes on the north bank of the Loire, makes dry Chenin that can be austere and closed when young and develops honey, beeswax and chamomile over many years; it includes two tiny sub-appellations, La Roche aux Moines and Coulée de Serrant, the latter a single vineyard famous as an early biodynamic estate. Anjou Blanc has improved dramatically, with many quality-focused growers making dry, mineral Chenin under this modest name, often at excellent prices. Sweet wines come from the Layon valley: Coteaux du Layon, Bonnezeaux and Quarts de Chaume, the last of which can rival Sauternes for richness at lower cost. For service, young Savennières benefits from decanting and should not be served too cold; it can be paired with richer fish, veal or poultry with cream. When listing these wines, add a line on style because the names give no clue whether the wine is dry or sweet. - Grape: Chenin Blanc - Savennières: dry, ageworthy, schist soils - Coulée de Serrant is a single-vineyard appellation - Sweet: Coteaux du Layon, Bonnezeaux, Quarts de Chaume - Young Savennières benefits from decanting #### Chinon, Bourgueil and Saumur-Champigny The Loire’s best reds come from Cabernet Franc in Touraine and Saumur, and they are some of the most versatile food wines a restaurant can list. Chinon, on the Vienne river, makes wines ranging from light and crunchy on sandy, gravel soils by the river to firmer, longer-lived wines from limestone and clay slopes. Bourgueil and Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil on the north bank are similar, with Bourgueil often a little sturdier. Saumur-Champigny, from the chalky tuffeau around Saumur, is typically bright, red-fruited and fresh. Expect raspberry, red cherry, pencil shavings and sometimes a leafy, green-pepper note, which is more pronounced in cool years and divides drinkers. Lighter styles should be served slightly cool, around 14 to 15 degrees, which suits summer menus and charcuterie. These wines sit at good prices compared with Bordeaux, which is mostly Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon but uses Cabernet Franc too, so they make a natural suggestion for a guest who likes claret but wants something lighter. Pair with pork, duck, mushrooms, roast chicken and goat’s cheese. - Grape: Cabernet Franc - Chinon soils range from gravel to limestone - Serve lighter styles slightly cool - Leafy, green-pepper note in cooler vintages - Good value alternative to lighter claret #### Côte-Rôtie and Condrieu At the northern tip of the Rhône, steep terraced granite slopes above the town of Ampuis make two of France’s most distinctive wines. Côte-Rôtie is red from Syrah, with up to 20 per cent of the white grape Viognier allowed to be co-fermented, although many growers use far less or none. The result is a perfumed Syrah with violets, black olive, bacon fat and pepper, more elegant than Hermitage. The two best-known slopes are the Côte Brune and Côte Blonde. Condrieu, immediately south, is a white appellation for Viognier alone, giving rich, low-acid wines that smell of apricot, peach and honeysuckle. Within Condrieu sits Château-Grillet, a tiny single-estate appellation. Condrieu is best drunk young and fresh, served not too cold, and pairs with spiced dishes, crab, lobster and some Asian flavours. Both wines are expensive because the slopes are hand-worked and yields are low. For guests who love Viognier but not the price, Viognier from the Collines Rhodaniennes or the Languedoc gives the style at a fraction of the cost. - Côte-Rôtie: Syrah, up to 20% Viognier permitted - Condrieu: Viognier only - Château-Grillet is a single-estate appellation - Steep granite terraces, hand-worked - Condrieu is usually drunk young #### Hermitage, Crozes and Saint-Joseph The heart of the northern Rhône is the hill of Hermitage above Tain-l’Hermitage, a single south-facing granite slope producing powerful, long-lived Syrah and, less known, rich white wine from Marsanne and Roussanne. Around it lies Crozes-Hermitage, a far larger appellation on flatter land that produces most of the northern Rhône’s red by volume and is a staple for UK lists: juicy, peppery Syrah at a price the average table will pay. Saint-Joseph runs for around 50 kilometres along the west bank and varies widely, but the best are a step up from Crozes in concentration. Cornas, south of Saint-Joseph, is all Syrah, traditionally rustic and dark, and now highly sought after. Saint-Péray, at the southern end, makes still and sparkling whites from Marsanne and Roussanne. Selling these, the key word is pepper: northern Rhône Syrah is savoury and peppery with dark fruit, not jammy. Suggest it to guests who like structured reds but find Australian Shiraz too sweet. Pair with lamb, venison, steak with peppercorn sauce and game birds. - Northern Rhône reds are 100% Syrah (whites permitted in some) - Hermitage whites: Marsanne and Roussanne - Crozes-Hermitage is the volume appellation - Cornas is Syrah only - Savoury, peppery style versus New World Shiraz #### Châteauneuf-du-Pape Châteauneuf-du-Pape, between Orange and Avignon, is the flagship of the southern Rhône, and its rules permit thirteen grape varieties, counted as eighteen when colour variants are included, though Grenache dominates most blends, supported by Syrah, Mourvèdre and Cinsault. The famous galets roulés, large round stones in some vineyards, store heat and reflect it; but the appellation has sand, clay and limestone too, and sandy sites tend to give more fragrant wines. Reds are warm, generous and spicy, often 14.5 per cent alcohol or more, with red fruit, garrigue herbs, leather and liquorice. White Châteauneuf, from Grenache Blanc, Clairette, Roussanne and others, is a small share of production and well worth listing for richer fish dishes. The embossed papal keys on the bottle denote estate-bottled wine from members of the growers’ federation. On a UK list Châteauneuf is a recognisable mid-to-high price red; Gigondas and Vacqueyras offer a similar style for less, and Côtes du Rhône-Villages with a named village less still. Serve at the cooler end of red temperatures, around 16 to 17 degrees, because the alcohol shows if it is warm. - Permitted grapes: 13 (18 counting colour variants) - Grenache is the main grape - Galets roulés stones in some sites - Alternatives: Gigondas, Vacqueyras, Rasteau - Serve cool to tame high alcohol #### Southern Rhône crus Beyond Châteauneuf, the southern Rhône has a ladder of named crus that make useful list wines. Gigondas, at the foot of the Dentelles de Montmirail, is Grenache-led, firmer and fresher than Châteauneuf thanks to higher, cooler vineyards. Vacqueyras next door is a little softer. Rasteau, Cairanne, Vinsobres and Beaumes-de-Venise have all been promoted from Côtes du Rhône-Villages to cru status, and are generally good value. Lirac, across the river, makes all three colours, and Tavel is the only Rhône appellation for rosé alone, a deeper, more structured pink than Provence that pairs with food. Beaumes-de-Venise and Rasteau also have sweet fortified versions called vin doux naturel: Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise is a classic, inexpensive dessert wine. Below the crus, Côtes du Rhône-Villages with a village name, then plain Côtes du Rhône Villages, then Côtes du Rhône form the base. On the floor, Côtes du Rhône is one of the safest house reds you can pour: soft, warming and food-friendly. The crus offer the trade-up conversation when a table wants something better but not Châteauneuf. - Crus: Gigondas, Vacqueyras, Rasteau, Cairanne, Vinsobres, Lirac, Tavel - Tavel is a rosé-only appellation - Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise is a fortified sweet wine - Côtes du Rhône is the base tier - Good trade-up path for house red drinkers #### Left Bank and Right Bank Bordeaux Bordeaux splits along its rivers. The Left Bank, west of the Garonne and Gironde, has gravel soils that drain well and warm up, suiting late-ripening Cabernet Sauvignon; its key appellations are in the Médoc and Graves. The Right Bank, north and east of the Dordogne, has more clay and limestone that suit Merlot and Cabernet Franc; its stars are Saint-Émilion and Pomerol, with Fronsac and the various Côtes de Bordeaux offering value. The practical difference in the glass: Left Bank wines tend to be more structured and tannic, with blackcurrant, cedar and graphite, and often need more time; Right Bank wines are typically softer, plummier and approachable earlier. Between the two rivers lies Entre-Deux-Mers, mainly known for dry white. Telling a guest which bank a wine comes from is an efficient way to describe style without jargon. Generic Bordeaux and Bordeaux Supérieur are blended from across the region and dominate house-wine price points; the term château does not imply quality, as thousands of properties use it, so producer reputation matters. - Left Bank: gravel, Cabernet Sauvignon-led - Right Bank: clay and limestone, Merlot-led - Château on a label does not guarantee quality - Entre-Deux-Mers mainly dry white - Right Bank typically approachable earlier #### Médoc communes The Haut-Médoc contains four famous communal appellations, and knowing their personalities helps sell claret. Saint-Estèphe, furthest north, has more clay, giving sturdier, firmer wines that can be austere young. Pauillac is home to three of the five First Growths of the 1855 classification and gives powerful, cassis and cedar-scented wines that are the archetype of Cabernet Sauvignon claret. Saint-Julien, between Pauillac and Margaux, is often described as balanced and consistent, with a high proportion of classified estates. Margaux, furthest south and the largest, is associated with perfume and finesse. Listrac-Médoc and Moulis-en-Médoc, set back from the river, offer communal claret at lower prices. The 1855 classification ranks estates into five growths and has barely changed since, apart from Mouton Rothschild’s promotion to First Growth in 1973. Below it, Cru Bourgeois is a separate classification, revised periodically, with tiers that can signal value. Second wines of classified estates, made from younger vines or lots not used in the main wine, are a common restaurant compromise. - Four communes: Saint-Estèphe, Pauillac, Saint-Julien, Margaux - 1855 classification has five growths - Mouton Rothschild promoted in 1973 - Cru Bourgeois is a separate, revised classification - Second wines offer classified-estate style for less #### Saint-Émilion and Pomerol The great Right Bank names work very differently. Saint-Émilion has its own classification, revised roughly every decade, with Premier Grand Cru Classé A at the top, then Premier Grand Cru Classé B and Grand Cru Classé; confusingly, plain Saint-Émilion Grand Cru on a label is an appellation, not a classification, and covers a large volume of wine of varying quality. Recent revisions saw several top estates withdraw from the classification altogether, so absence from the list no longer signals lesser quality. The satellite appellations, such as Montagne-Saint-Émilion and Lussac-Saint-Émilion, are good value. Pomerol, a small plateau of clay and gravel, has no official classification at all yet contains some of the world’s most expensive wines, made mainly from Merlot. Lalande-de-Pomerol to the north offers a similar style more affordably. For restaurants, Right Bank wines are often easier sells than young Left Bank claret, because their soft, plum and chocolate fruit is approachable sooner. A ten-year-old Saint-Émilion Grand Cru from a good property can be a crowd-pleasing mid-price bottle. - Saint-Émilion classification revised about every decade - Saint-Émilion Grand Cru is an appellation, not a ranking - Pomerol has no classification - Merlot dominates both - Satellites and Lalande-de-Pomerol offer value #### Graves and Pessac-Léognan South of the city of Bordeaux, Graves takes its name from its gravel soils and makes both red and white. In 1987 the northern, most prestigious part was given its own appellation, Pessac-Léognan, which includes all the Graves classified growths, among them Château Haut-Brion, the only non-Médoc estate in the 1855 First Growths. Reds are often described as having an earthy, smoky or tobacco character alongside blackcurrant. The whites are the region’s secret weapon: blends of Sauvignon Blanc and Sémillon, often fermented and aged in oak, which can be rich, waxy and long-lived, and rank among the great dry whites of France. Plain Graves offers both colours at gentler prices. Further south still are the sweet appellations of Sauternes and Barsac. For a restaurant list, a white Pessac-Léognan is a superb alternative for guests who want something as serious as white Burgundy; it pairs with turbot, lobster, veal and dishes with cream or butter sauces. Explain it as a blend of Sauvignon’s freshness with Sémillon’s weight. - Pessac-Léognan appellation created 1987 - Haut-Brion is the non-Médoc 1855 First Growth - White blend: Sauvignon Blanc and Sémillon - Gravel soils give the name - White Pessac pairs with rich fish dishes #### Côtes de Bordeaux and value claret Most restaurant claret is not classified growth; it comes from the large, less famous appellations that provide honest wine at sensible prices. The Côtes de Bordeaux umbrella includes Blaye, Castillon, Francs and Cadillac, all on the Right Bank side, typically Merlot-led and often made by quality-minded growers who cannot afford land in Saint-Émilion next door. Castillon in particular is known for estates making serious wine at a fraction of its neighbour’s price. Bourg, overlooking the Gironde, is similar. Bordeaux Supérieur is the generic appellation with slightly stricter rules than plain Bordeaux, including lower yields and longer ageing before release. Haut-Médoc wines that are not classified can also be fair value. For a buyer, the practical approach is to taste widely from a supplier’s value range rather than buying on label, because quality varies enormously and the vintage makes a big difference at this level. In cooler, wetter years basic Bordeaux can be thin and green; in riper years it can be excellent value. List one or two reliable value clarets for the guest who simply wants Bordeaux. - Côtes de Bordeaux: Blaye, Castillon, Francs, Cadillac - Mostly Merlot-led - Bordeaux Supérieur has stricter rules than Bordeaux - Vintage variation is greatest at entry level - Taste before listing; labels say little #### Champagne villages and crus Champagne’s vineyards are grouped into areas with different strengths. The Montagne de Reims, south of the city, is known for Pinot Noir with structure and power, around villages such as Verzenay, Bouzy and Ambonnay. The Vallée de la Marne, running west from Épernay, is the heartland of Pinot Meunier, giving fruity, approachable base wines. The Côte des Blancs, south of Épernay, is planted almost entirely with Chardonnay, with villages such as Cramant, Avize, Oger and Le Mesnil-sur-Oger, and supplies finesse for Blanc de Blancs. The Côte des Bar in the Aube, far to the south, is mostly Pinot Noir and has become a source of exciting grower Champagne. The village classification, the échelle des crus, rates villages as Grand Cru (seventeen villages) or Premier Cru; you will see these terms on labels, but they describe the village, not the wine’s quality. Most big-house non-vintage wines blend across many villages for consistency. Grower Champagnes, often marked RM (récoltant-manipulant) on the label, express a single village and can give a list character and better margin than famous brands. - Areas: Montagne de Reims, Vallée de la Marne, Côte des Blancs, Côte des Bar - Seventeen Grand Cru villages - Cru status refers to the village, not the cuvée - RM on a label signals a grower producer - Côte des Blancs is almost all Chardonnay #### Alsace Grand Cru and labelling Alsace labels its wines by grape, which makes them easier to sell than most French wines, but there is more to explain. The main grapes are Riesling, Gewurztraminer, Pinot Gris and Muscat, considered the noble varieties eligible for most Grand Cru sites, plus Pinot Blanc and Sylvaner for lighter wines. There are 51 Grand Cru vineyards, each with its own rules, and the name of the site appears on the label. Since the early 2010s the region also recognises communal and lieu-dit names on some labels. The biggest practical problem is sweetness: Alsace wines range from bone dry to noticeably sweet, and the label historically gave no clue. Many producers now use a sweetness scale on the back label, which helps, but service staff must still taste and note each wine. Late-harvest Vendanges Tardives and botrytised Sélection de Grains Nobles are formal sweet categories. Crémant d’Alsace is the region’s sparkling wine and France’s largest-selling crémant. Alsace whites are excellent with pork, charcuterie, Munster cheese, choucroute and spiced cuisine. - Noble grapes: Riesling, Gewurztraminer, Pinot Gris, Muscat - 51 Grand Cru sites - Sweetness varies; check back-label scale - VT and SGN are sweet categories - Crémant d’Alsace is the region’s sparkling #### Jura The Jura, in the hills between Burgundy and Switzerland, has gone from obscurity to cult status among sommeliers, and it deserves a place on any adventurous list. Its grapes are Chardonnay and Savagnin for whites, and Poulsard, Trousseau and Pinot Noir for reds. Whites come in two broad styles: ouillé, meaning topped up during ageing to keep the wine fresh, and sous voile, meaning aged under a film of yeast in barrels that are not topped up, giving nutty, oxidative flavours like fino sherry. Vin jaune is the extreme of the latter: Savagnin aged under yeast for at least six years and three months in barrel, bottled in the 62 cl clavelin bottle, and the appellation Château-Chalon makes only vin jaune. Vin de paille is a sweet wine made from grapes dried after harvest. Poulsard reds are pale, almost rosé coloured, light and delicate. The main appellations are Arbois, Côtes du Jura, L’Étoile and Château-Chalon. In service, warn guests about the oxidative style before pouring; pair vin jaune with Comté cheese and chicken with morels, the regional classics. - Grapes: Chardonnay, Savagnin, Poulsard, Trousseau, Pinot Noir - Ouillé is topped up; sous voile is under yeast - Vin jaune: at least six years three months in barrel - Clavelin bottle is 62 cl - Classic match: vin jaune with Comté #### Savoie Savoie, in the French Alps near the Swiss border, makes fresh, light wines that UK diners mostly meet on ski holidays and increasingly on lists alongside fondue and raclette. The whites dominate. Jacquère is the workhorse, giving light, crisp, low-alcohol wines with floral and mineral notes, ideal by the glass. Altesse, also called Roussette, makes richer, more aromatic wines and has its own appellation, Roussette de Savoie. Bergeron is the local name for Roussanne, used in Chignin-Bergeron. Reds are led by Mondeuse, a peppery, purple-fruited grape with lively acidity that suits charcuterie and game. Gamay and Pinot Noir are also grown. Crus such as Apremont, Abymes, Chignin and Arbin appear on labels after Vin de Savoie. In a restaurant, Savoie wines are useful because they are light in alcohol and fresh, which suits rich, cheese-heavy alpine food, and they offer novelty at reasonable prices. Volumes are small and much is drunk locally, so supply can be patchy; secure allocations if you build a winter menu around them. - White grapes: Jacquère, Altesse, Bergeron (Roussanne) - Red grape: Mondeuse - Crus include Apremont, Chignin, Arbin - Light alcohol, high freshness - Natural partner for fondue and raclette #### South-West France South-West France is a patchwork of appellations between Bordeaux and the Pyrenees and a fertile hunting ground for distinctive list wines at fair prices. Cahors is the historic home of Malbec, known locally as Côt, making darker and more tannic wines than Argentina’s. Madiran is based on Tannat, a grape with fierce tannin that needs time or modern winemaking to soften, and is ideal with confit duck and cassoulet. Bergerac and its sub-appellations make Bordeaux-style reds and whites, with Monbazillac its sweet wine. Gaillac has a remarkable range of local grapes such as Mauzac, Len de l’El, Braucol and Duras. Jurançon, in the foothills near Pau, makes both dry and sweet whites from Petit Manseng and Gros Manseng; the sweet versions, from late-picked grapes rather than botrytis, are vivid and high in acidity. Côtes de Gascogne, a regional IGP, is a reliable source of crisp, inexpensive white based on Colombard and Ugni Blanc. Irouléguy in the Basque country is small but intriguing. These wines often outperform their price and give staff stories to tell. - Cahors is Malbec (Côt) - Madiran is Tannat - Jurançon uses Petit and Gros Manseng - Côtes de Gascogne IGP is value white - Gaillac has many local grapes #### Corsica Corsica is French politically but Italian in many of its grapes and wine traditions, and its wines have improved enormously. Nielluccio, genetically the same as Sangiovese, is the main red grape in the north, particularly in Patrimonio, giving structured, herb-scented reds. Sciaccarellu, found around Ajaccio in the south-west on granite, gives pale, peppery, delicate reds and characterful rosés. Vermentinu, the local spelling of Vermentino, is the main white grape and makes aromatic, saline whites. Muscat du Cap Corse is a fortified sweet wine from the northern peninsula. The island’s appellations include Patrimonio, Ajaccio, Vin de Corse with various named sub-areas, and Muscat du Cap Corse. A huge amount of Corsican rosé is produced and, with Provence pink in such high demand, it can be a well-priced alternative with a similar pale, dry style. On a list, Corsican wines suit Mediterranean menus with grilled fish, lamb, herbs and tomatoes. Their scarcity in the UK is a selling point for curious guests, but check supplier stock carefully as volumes reaching Britain are modest. - Nielluccio is Sangiovese - Sciaccarellu makes pale, peppery reds - Vermentinu is the main white - Patrimonio and Ajaccio are key appellations - Rosé alternative to Provence #### Bandol Bandol, on the Provençal coast between Marseille and Toulon, is one of the few places where Mourvèdre is the star. Red Bandol must contain a high proportion of Mourvèdre, usually blended with Grenache and Cinsault, and must spend at least eighteen months in oak before release. The result is a dark, structured, savoury red with notes of black fruit, game, leather and garrigue herbs, which needs years in bottle to show its best and can age for decades. Bandol rosé is the region’s most famous product in the UK: deeper in flavour and more structured than most Provence pink, built to be drunk with food, and it can develop in bottle for a few years. White Bandol, from Clairette, Ugni Blanc and Bourboulenc, is a small share. On a list, Bandol rosé sits at a premium over Côtes de Provence and is worth explaining as the rosé for people who want a serious wine. The red is a fine match for lamb, beef daube, game and Provençal dishes with olives. Decant young reds. - Red Bandol is Mourvèdre-led - Reds need at least 18 months in oak - Bandol rosé is fuller than most Provence pink - Reds can age for decades - Classic match: lamb and daube #### Roussillon Roussillon, the Catalan corner of France against the Spanish border, is often lumped with Languedoc but has a distinct identity. It is hot, dry and windy, with old bush vines of Grenache, Carignan, Syrah and Mourvèdre on schist, granite and limestone. Its reds, under Côtes du Roussillon, Côtes du Roussillon Villages and named villages such as Maury sec and Collioure, are rich and spicy and often excellent value. Collioure, on the coast, makes reds, whites and rosés, while the same vineyards produce Banyuls, a sweet fortified red. Roussillon is above all the home of vin doux naturel: grape spirit is added to stop fermentation, keeping natural sweetness. Rivesaltes, Maury and Banyuls make these in styles from fresh and fruity, labelled grenat or rimage, to oxidative, nutty, long-aged wines called tuilé or hors d’âge, sometimes aged in glass demijohns in the sun. These are inexpensive alternatives to port and tawny, and Banyuls is one of the few wines that pairs well with chocolate. Muscat de Rivesaltes is the fresh, aromatic Muscat version. - Vin doux naturel: spirit added to stop fermentation - Banyuls and Maury: sweet fortified reds - Collioure shares vineyards with Banyuls - Old bush vines on schist and granite - Banyuls pairs with chocolate #### Languedoc crus The Languedoc is no longer just the source of bulk wine; its named crus now produce some of southern France’s best value. Pic Saint-Loup, north of Montpellier, makes elegant Syrah-led reds from cooler, higher sites. Terrasses du Larzac, on the edge of the Larzac plateau, benefits from big day-night temperature swings that preserve freshness. Faugères, on schist, makes supple, smoky reds; Saint-Chinian has both schist and limestone sectors. Minervois, and its cru Minervois-La Livinière, give warm, generous wines. Corbières is large and varied, with Boutenac as its top cru. Picpoul de Pinet is the region’s famous white, from the Picpoul grape near the Thau lagoon, a crisp, lemony wine that has become a UK by-the-glass staple and an obvious partner for oysters and mussels. Limoux makes sparkling wines, including Crémant de Limoux and the historic Blanquette de Limoux, as well as still Chardonnay. The regional IGP Pays d’Oc covers huge volumes of varietal wine. For a buyer, the crus offer characterful bottles in the £30 to £50 menu range. - Crus: Pic Saint-Loup, Terrasses du Larzac, Faugères, Saint-Chinian - Picpoul de Pinet: crisp white near the Thau lagoon - Limoux makes sparkling and Chardonnay - IGP Pays d’Oc is large-volume varietal wine - Good value mid-list reds #### Beaujolais crus in detail The ten Beaujolais crus each carry their own village name and usually do not say Beaujolais prominently, which confuses guests. Brouilly is the largest and gives fruity, easy wines; Côte de Brouilly, on the slopes of Mont Brouilly, is more concentrated. Régnié is the newest cru and light. Morgon, especially the Côte du Py hill, gives firmer, darker wines that can age and take on a Burgundian character, hence the verb morgonner. Chiroubles, high up, is delicate. Fleurie is floral and silky and one of the best-known in the UK. Moulin-à-Vent is the most structured, often aged in oak and long-lived. Chénas is the smallest. Juliénas is spicy and rich, and Saint-Amour, the northernmost, is popular around Valentine’s Day for obvious reasons. Gamay from good crus can be served lightly chilled, about 13 to 14 degrees, which makes it a perfect red for warm days and lighter dishes. The crus are exceptional value against red Burgundy, and selling one to a Pinot Noir lover with a quick explanation is an easy win. - Ten crus, all Gamay - Moulin-à-Vent and Morgon are most structured - Fleurie is floral and silky - Serve lightly chilled - Value alternative to red Burgundy ### Winemaking methods #### Malolactic conversion Malolactic conversion, often called malolactic fermentation or simply malo, is the bacterial process that turns sharp malic acid, the acid of green apples, into softer lactic acid, the acid in milk. It is carried out by lactic acid bacteria, usually after the alcoholic fermentation. Almost all red wines go through it, because it softens them and makes them more stable in bottle. For whites, it is a winemaker’s choice. Chardonnay from Burgundy and many New World producers often undergoes full malo, which, along with the by-product diacetyl, gives the buttery character many guests associate with oaked Chardonnay. Crisp, aromatic whites such as Riesling, Sauvignon Blanc and Albariño usually have malo blocked, by chilling, filtering or using sulphur, to preserve their freshness. Partial malo, where only some of the wine is converted, is common. On the floor, malo is a useful explanation when a guest says they do not like buttery Chardonnay: the butter is not from oak alone, and an unoaked, non-malo style like Chablis or many cooler-climate Chardonnays will suit them. If malo happens accidentally in bottle, the wine can turn slightly fizzy and cloudy. - Converts malic acid to lactic acid - Carried out by lactic acid bacteria - Nearly all reds go through it - Diacetyl gives buttery notes - Accidental malo in bottle causes spritz and haze #### Lees ageing and bâtonnage Lees are the dead yeast cells and other solids that settle after fermentation. Leaving a wine in contact with its fine lees, and sometimes stirring them back into suspension, a practice called bâtonnage, adds texture, a creamy roundness and savoury, bready flavours. It also protects the wine from oxidation to some degree. The technique is classic in white Burgundy, where barrels are stirred over the winter after fermentation, in Muscadet sur lie, and in many modern whites around the world. Champagne and other traditional-method sparkling wines are aged on their lees in bottle for months or years, which is the source of the brioche and toast notes in older Champagne. Gross lees, the heavy sediment straight after fermentation, are usually removed early because they can create reductive, sulphurous smells. Stirring too often can make a wine heavy and flatten its fruit, so many winemakers now stir less than they did a generation ago. When describing a wine to a guest, phrases such as aged on its lees or with some lees texture help explain why it feels rounder and more savoury than you might expect. - Lees are spent yeast and solids - Bâtonnage is stirring the lees - Adds texture and bready, savoury notes - Gross lees removed early to avoid reduction - Source of brioche notes in Champagne #### Carbonic and semi-carbonic maceration Carbonic maceration is a fermentation technique in which whole, uncrushed bunches are placed in a vessel filled with carbon dioxide. Without oxygen, fermentation begins inside each berry, producing a little alcohol and distinctive fruity aromas, before the berries burst and normal yeast fermentation finishes the job. In practice most producers use semi-carbonic maceration, where whole bunches are piled into a tank and the weight of the fruit crushes the bottom layer, which ferments normally and releases carbon dioxide that blankets the rest. The style is strongly associated with Beaujolais, and gives soft, low-tannin, juicy reds with aromas of banana, bubblegum, kirsch and red sweets, which is what most people taste in Beaujolais Nouveau. Many natural and low-intervention winemakers around the world also use it for light, glugable reds intended to be served chilled. Carbonic wines are generally best drunk young. For staff, it is a useful explanation for why some light reds taste so fruity and soft, and for why serving them cool works. Suggest them for guests who say they find reds too heavy or tannic. - Whole bunches ferment in carbon dioxide - Fermentation begins inside the berry - Semi-carbonic is the common practical form - Gives soft, fruity, low-tannin reds - Associated with Beaujolais and glou-glou styles #### Whole-bunch fermentation Whole-bunch, or whole-cluster, fermentation means including some or all of the grape stems in a red fermentation instead of destemming the fruit. It is distinct from carbonic maceration, although uncrushed whole bunches will undergo some intracellular fermentation. The technique has a long history in Burgundy and the northern Rhône, and it has become fashionable worldwide among Pinot Noir and Syrah producers. Stems can add freshness, fragrance and a spicy, herbal or tea-like lift; they can also add structure and tannin and slightly lower the perceived alcohol and colour. If stems are not ripe, they bring green, stalky and bitter flavours, so the technique depends on the vintage and the vineyard. Producers often state a percentage, such as 30 per cent whole bunch, on technical sheets. In the glass, whole-bunch wines can smell of rose petals, sous bois and spice and often feel more transparent. When selling, this is a phrase that interests wine-literate guests; for others, describing a wine as fragrant and fresh with a little spice gets the point across without jargon. - Stems included in red fermentation - Common in Burgundy and northern Rhône - Adds fragrance, spice and structure - Unripe stems give green, bitter notes - Often stated as a percentage on tech sheets #### Cold soak and extraction Red wine gets its colour, tannin and much of its flavour from the skins, and winemakers have several tools to control how much they extract. Cold soak, or pre-fermentation maceration, holds crushed grapes at low temperature for several days before fermentation starts, aiming to extract colour and aromatic compounds in water rather than alcohol, and it is common with Pinot Noir. During fermentation, the cap of skins that floats on top must be managed. Pumping over moves juice from the bottom of the tank over the cap; punching down, or pigeage, pushes the cap down into the juice by hand, foot or machine; rack and return drains the tank and pours the juice back over the skins. Each method extracts differently: punching down is gentler and suits delicate grapes, while vigorous pumping over can extract more tannin. Post-fermentation maceration, leaving the wine on its skins after fermentation ends, can soften and integrate tannins in grapes such as Nebbiolo and Cabernet. Over-extraction is a common fault in ambitious wines, leading to harsh, drying tannins and heavy fruit. - Cold soak extracts before fermentation - Pumping over and punching down manage the cap - Pigeage is French for punching down - Extended maceration can soften tannins - Over-extraction leads to harsh, drying wines #### Oak barrel choices Choosing oak shapes a wine more than many guests realise. The main types are French oak, typically giving subtle spice, vanilla and fine-grained tannin, and American oak, which gives stronger vanilla, coconut and dill flavours and is traditional in Rioja and much Australian Shiraz. Hungarian and other Central European oaks are also used. Toast level, achieved by heating the inside of the barrel over a fire, ranges from light to heavy; heavier toast gives coffee, smoke and caramel notes. Barrel size matters: the standard Bordeaux barrique is 225 litres and the Burgundy pièce 228 litres, while larger casks such as 500-litre puncheons or big foudres give less oak flavour because less of the wine touches the wood. New barrels impart more flavour; after three or four uses they are essentially neutral and are used for gentle oxygenation. Because a new French barrel costs several hundred pounds or euros, cheaper wines get oak character from chips or staves in tanks. On the floor, telling a guest whether a wine sees new or old oak helps them understand whether it will taste woody. - French oak: subtle spice; American: vanilla, coconut - Barrique 225 litres; Burgundy pièce 228 litres - New oak gives most flavour - Larger casks give less oak influence - Chips and staves used for cheaper wines #### Amphora, concrete and alternative vessels Beyond steel tanks and oak barrels, winemakers increasingly use other vessels, and guests often ask about them. Clay amphorae have ancient roots; in Georgia, large egg-shaped clay vessels called qvevri are buried in the ground and used for fermentation and ageing, often with extended skin contact, and the method is on UNESCO’s list of intangible cultural heritage. Modern amphorae, made in Italy, Spain and elsewhere, are used to give a wine texture and a gentle oxygen exchange without oak flavour. Concrete tanks, including egg-shaped ones, have made a comeback: they are thermally stable, and the egg shape is said to encourage natural circulation of the lees. Glass demijohns are used for some sweet wines and small experiments. Stainless steel remains the standard for fresh, fruit-driven whites and rosés because it is inert, easy to clean and allows precise temperature control. When a list mentions amphora ageing, staff should be able to say what it does: texture and freshness without vanilla or toast, often associated with natural or skin-contact styles, though not always. - Georgian qvevri are buried clay vessels - Amphorae give texture without oak flavour - Concrete eggs are thermally stable - Steel is inert and preserves fruit - Amphora wines are not always skin-contact #### Fining and filtration Before bottling, most wines are clarified and stabilised so they arrive clear and stay that way. Fining involves adding a substance that binds to particles or unwanted compounds so they drop out. Traditional fining agents include egg white for softening tannins in reds, isinglass from fish bladders, casein from milk and gelatine, as well as bentonite clay, which removes proteins that could cause haze in whites. Vegan-friendly alternatives such as pea protein and bentonite are now widespread. Filtration passes wine through filters of various fineness to remove yeast, bacteria and sediment; sterile filtration removes microbes entirely. Some producers bottle unfined and unfiltered, believing it preserves texture and flavour, and the wine may throw a deposit or show slight haze. Cold stabilisation chills the wine to precipitate tartrate crystals, the harmless wine diamonds sometimes found in bottles or on corks. For staff, the important points are explaining harmless sediment and crystals to concerned guests, and knowing which wines are vegan: the fining agent is not always declared on the label, so ask suppliers and record it. - Fining agents: egg white, isinglass, casein, bentonite - Vegan fining uses pea protein or bentonite - Unfiltered wines may throw sediment - Tartrate crystals are harmless - Vegan status often not on the label #### Sulphur dioxide in winemaking Sulphur dioxide is the most widely used additive in wine. It acts as an antioxidant and an antimicrobial, protecting against spoilage and browning, and is added at various points from harvest to bottling. A small amount is also produced naturally by yeast during fermentation, which is why no wine is entirely sulphite-free. In the UK, as across Europe, wines containing more than 10 milligrams per litre must state contains sulphites, or an equivalent allergen declaration, because sulphites are one of the fourteen allergens. Legal maximums vary by wine type, with sweet wines allowed more than dry, and organic and biodynamic certifications set lower limits; natural wine producers use little or none. Contrary to popular belief, sulphites are not a common cause of headaches in most people, though a small minority, particularly some asthmatics, are genuinely sensitive. Many dried fruits contain far higher levels than wine. Too much sulphur in a wine can show as a burnt-match smell or a sharp, pinching sensation. For allergen paperwork, wine must be included like any other menu item, and staff should know that low-sulphur does not mean sulphite-free. - Antioxidant and antimicrobial - Yeast produces small amounts naturally - Over 10 mg/l must be declared - Sulphites are one of the 14 allergens - Excess shows as a burnt-match smell #### Chaptalisation and acidification Two common adjustments compensate for imperfect harvests. Chaptalisation, named after the French chemist Jean-Antoine Chaptal, is the addition of sugar to grape must before or during fermentation to raise the final alcohol; it does not make the wine sweet, because the yeast ferments the sugar. It is permitted in cooler regions such as parts of France, Germany and England, with limits set by law, and is banned in many warmer regions. Acidification, the addition of tartaric acid, is the reverse problem: in hot climates grapes can ripen with too little acid, giving flabby wine, so acid is added; this is routine in parts of Australia, California and southern Europe. Deacidification, reducing acidity, is sometimes needed in very cool years. These practices are generally not stated on labels. In England, chaptalisation has been a normal tool, though warmer recent vintages have reduced the need in some years. When guests ask whether a wine is manipulated, an honest answer is that most wines involve some adjustment, and that winemaking choices are about balance rather than authenticity alone. - Chaptalisation adds sugar to raise alcohol - Named after Jean-Antoine Chaptal - Does not make the wine sweet - Acidification adds tartaric acid in warm regions - Neither is usually declared on labels #### Traditional method in detail The traditional method, used in Champagne, Crémant, Cava, English sparkling and many others, produces bubbles through a second fermentation in the bottle. First, still base wines are made and blended, often including reserve wines from earlier years. The blend is bottled with a mixture of sugar and yeast, the liqueur de tirage, and sealed with a crown cap. Over a few weeks the second fermentation produces alcohol and carbon dioxide that dissolves into the wine, creating pressure of roughly five to six atmospheres in a typical Champagne. The wine then rests on its lees, the yeast deposits, for months or years, gaining complexity. Riddling, or remuage, gradually turns and tilts the bottles until the sediment collects in the neck; this is now mostly done by machines called gyropalettes. Disgorgement freezes the neck and removes the plug of sediment. Finally, the dosage, a mixture of wine and sugar, is added to set the sweetness level before corking. Disgorgement dates on back labels are increasingly common and help staff know how fresh or developed a bottle is. - Second fermentation happens in bottle - Pressure around 5 to 6 atmospheres - Riddling moves sediment to the neck - Disgorgement removes the yeast plug - Dosage sets the final sweetness #### Tank and ancestral methods Not all sparkling wine is made in the bottle. The tank method, also called the Charmat or Martinotti method, conducts the second fermentation in a large pressurised tank, after which the wine is filtered and bottled under pressure. It is quicker and cheaper, and it preserves fresh, primary fruit aromas, which is why it suits aromatic grapes and is used for most Prosecco and Asti. Bubbles tend to be larger and less persistent than in traditional-method wines. The ancestral method, known in France as méthode ancestrale and widely now as pét-nat, from pétillant naturel, is the oldest approach: wine is bottled before the first fermentation finishes, and the remaining sugar ferments in bottle to produce gentle bubbles. Sediment is often left in, so pét-nat can be cloudy and is usually sealed with a crown cap. Styles vary widely and bottles can be unpredictable. The transfer method ferments in bottle but then empties the bottles into a tank for filtering, used for some large formats. On the floor, the method explains price differences: a Prosecco and a Champagne are made in fundamentally different ways. - Tank method: second fermentation in pressurised tank - Used for most Prosecco and Asti - Pét-nat is bottled mid-fermentation - Pét-nat often cloudy, crown-capped - Method largely explains price differences #### Dosage and sweetness terms The dosage added after disgorgement determines how dry or sweet a sparkling wine tastes, and the label terms are counterintuitive. Brut Nature, also called zero dosage or pas dosé, has no added sugar and less than three grams per litre of residual sugar. Extra Brut has up to six grams per litre. Brut, the most common style, has up to twelve grams per litre. Then, confusingly, Extra Dry (also Extra Sec) is sweeter than Brut, with roughly twelve to seventeen grams per litre, and is common for Prosecco. Dry or Sec is sweeter again, Demi-Sec noticeably sweet, and Doux the sweetest. Many guests assume Extra Dry is the driest option; it is not, and that misunderstanding causes complaints. Low-dosage Champagnes have become fashionable, but they depend on ripe fruit and long lees ageing to avoid tasting harsh. Demi-Sec is the right choice with desserts, because a dry sparkling wine tastes thin and sour next to sweet food. Staff should memorise the order and be ready to steer guests to the right style for their dish. - Brut Nature: under 3 g/l, no added sugar - Extra Brut: up to 6 g/l - Brut: up to 12 g/l - Extra Dry is sweeter than Brut - Demi-Sec suits desserts #### Appassimento and dried-grape wines Drying grapes after harvest concentrates sugar, flavour and acidity, and several classic wines depend on it. In the Veneto, the appassimento method dries grapes on racks or in crates in well-ventilated lofts for several months; Amarone della Valpolicella is fermented dry from these grapes, giving a powerful, rich red often around 15 per cent alcohol or more, while Recioto is the sweet version. Ripasso is a hybrid: Valpolicella wine is refermented on the leftover pomace from Amarone production, adding body and flavour at a lower price. In Tuscany, Vin Santo is made from dried Trebbiano and Malvasia grapes and aged in small sealed barrels. In France, vin de paille, straw wine, from the Jura and northern Rhône, dries grapes on straw mats. Passito is the general Italian term for dried-grape wines, such as Passito di Pantelleria from Zibibbo, the local Muscat of Alexandria. These wines are labour-intensive and lose a large share of grape weight in drying, which explains their price. On the floor, Amarone works with braised meats and hard cheeses; serve it not too warm. - Appassimento: drying grapes before fermentation - Amarone is dry; Recioto is sweet - Ripasso refermented on Amarone pomace - Vin Santo and vin de paille use dried grapes - Passito is the general Italian term #### Botrytis and noble rot production Noble rot, the fungus Botrytis cinerea in its benign form, attacks ripe grapes in specific conditions: misty, humid mornings followed by warm, dry afternoons. The fungus pierces the skins, water evaporates and the grapes shrivel, concentrating sugar and acidity and adding distinctive flavours of honey, apricot, marmalade and saffron. The same fungus in wet, persistent conditions becomes grey rot and ruins a crop, so producers depend on the weather. Because the rot spreads unevenly, the best estates pick in several passes through the vineyard, called tries, selecting only affected berries, which is slow and expensive and yields tiny volumes. Regions famous for botrytised wines include Sauternes and Barsac, Tokaj in Hungary, the Mosel and Rheingau in Germany for Beerenauslese and Trockenbeerenauslese, Austria’s Burgenland around Lake Neusiedl, and parts of the Loire. Many New World producers make botrytis wines too. Some years produce little or none. These wines are usually sold in half bottles in restaurants, which suits the small serves needed, and good examples keep well once opened for several days. - Botrytis cinerea in benign form - Needs misty mornings and dry afternoons - Hand-picked in several passes - Grey rot is the destructive form - Often sold in half bottles #### Solera and fractional blending The solera system is a method of fractional blending used most famously for sherry, but also for some Madeira, Marsala, Montilla-Moriles, Spanish brandy and a handful of still and sparkling wines. Barrels are arranged in tiers called criaderas, with the bottom tier, confusingly also called the solera, holding the oldest wine. When wine is drawn for bottling, only a portion is taken from the solera tier, and it is replenished from the next oldest criadera, which is topped up from the one above, and so on, with new wine entering at the top. Over time this creates a consistent house style and a blend containing small amounts of very old wine. Because of this, most sherries do not carry a vintage, and age statements such as VOS (over 20 years) and VORS (over 30 years) are based on certified average age. In service, solera wines explain why sherry offers remarkable complexity for the price. Some Champagne houses and other producers use a perpetual reserve on similar principles to blend reserve wines, which you may see referred to on labels. - Barrels arranged in tiers called criaderas - Bottom tier holds the oldest wine - Only part is drawn at a time - Creates consistency and no vintage - VOS over 20 years; VORS over 30 #### Fortification methods Fortified wines all add grape spirit, but timing changes the style. In port, spirit is added part-way through fermentation, usually after a couple of days, killing the yeast and leaving natural grape sweetness; the result is around 19 to 22 per cent alcohol. Vins doux naturels from southern France, such as Banyuls, Maury and Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise, use the same principle with different rules. Madeira is also fortified during fermentation for sweeter styles and after for drier ones, then heated, either by the estufagem process in heated tanks or by canteiro ageing in warm lofts, which gives its distinctive cooked, oxidised character and near-indestructible stability once opened. Sherry is the opposite: spirit is added after fermentation has finished, so the base wine is dry, and sweet sherries are made by blending or from dried Pedro Ximénez or Moscatel grapes. The level of fortification for sherry influences whether flor yeast survives: finos are fortified to around 15 per cent so flor can live; olorosos to around 17 per cent or more, which prevents flor. Staff who understand these differences can explain why some fortifieds keep for weeks once open and others for days. - Port fortified mid-fermentation - Sherry fortified after fermentation - Madeira is heated during ageing - Fino strength allows flor to survive - Oloroso fortified higher, no flor #### Biological and oxidative ageing Wines can be aged with or without exposure to oxygen, and the difference creates entire style families. Biological ageing happens under a layer of yeast called flor, which forms on the surface of wine in barrels that are not filled to the top. The flor protects the wine from oxygen and consumes glycerol and alcohol, giving a pale, bone-dry wine with flavours of bread dough, almonds and chamomile. Fino and manzanilla sherry are the classic examples, along with Jura’s vin jaune. Oxidative ageing exposes wine to air over time without flor, darkening the colour and creating nutty, toffee, dried-fruit and walnut flavours; oloroso sherry, tawny port, Madeira and Rivesaltes tuilé are examples. Amontillado and palo cortado sit between, having started under flor before ageing oxidatively. For service, biologically aged wines are fragile once opened and should be treated like white wine: refrigerated and used within days. Oxidatively aged wines are much more robust and can last weeks. Knowing this is essential for running a sherry or fortified by-the-glass programme without waste. - Biological: under flor yeast - Oxidative: exposed to air - Fino and manzanilla are biological - Amontillado and palo cortado are both - Biological wines fade fast once opened #### Reduction in wine Reduction describes aromas that develop when wine is starved of oxygen, often during fermentation or under very tight closures such as screwcaps. The culprits are sulphur compounds, ranging from a flinty, struck-match smell that many people find attractive in white Burgundy and some Chardonnay, to unpleasant notes of rotten egg, cabbage, drains or rubber at higher levels. Light reduction often dissipates with air, so swirling, decanting or simply allowing the wine some time in a large glass can solve it. Some winemakers deliberately encourage a struck-match character in whites as a style. Persistent mercaptans, the more stubborn compounds, may not clear and can be considered a fault. A traditional sommelier’s trick for reduction is to drop a clean copper coin into a glass, since copper binds with some sulphur compounds, but modern coins are not reliably copper and it is not appropriate at the table. On the floor, if a guest finds a newly opened wine smells eggy, explain that it can benefit from air and offer to decant it, but replace it if the smell persists after a few minutes. - Caused by lack of oxygen - Ranges from struck match to rotten egg - Light reduction clears with air - Some reduction is deliberate in whites - Decant before replacing a reduced bottle #### Wild versus cultured yeast Fermentation can rely on ambient yeasts found on grape skins and in the winery, known as wild, native or indigenous yeast, or on cultured yeasts selected and sold for specific properties. Cultured yeasts give predictable, reliable fermentations and can emphasise particular aromas, which suits large-scale production and aromatic whites. Wild fermentations start more slowly and involve a succession of yeast species before the dominant Saccharomyces cerevisiae takes over; supporters say this adds complexity and a sense of place, while critics point to higher risk of stuck fermentation and off-flavours such as volatile acidity. Many respected producers use wild yeast, and natural wine depends on it. It is worth noting that a winery’s ambient population often includes descendants of commercial strains used in the past. Fermentation temperature also strongly affects flavour: cool fermentation preserves fruity esters in whites, while warmer fermentation extracts more from red skins. For staff, wild ferment is a meaningful selling point for curious guests, but should not be presented as automatically better. - Wild yeast: ambient, from vineyard and winery - Cultured yeast: selected, predictable - Wild ferments start slowly - Higher risk of stuck fermentation - Not automatically better quality ### Italian appellations #### Barolo Barolo, in the Langhe hills of Piedmont, is Nebbiolo at its most famous: pale in colour yet high in tannin and acidity, smelling of roses, tar, cherries and dried herbs. The rules require at least 38 months of ageing before release, including 18 months in wood, and Riserva needs at least 62 months. Eleven communes are entitled to the name, but five matter most. La Morra tends to give the most perfumed, approachable wines; Barolo village sits between styles; Castiglione Falletto is balanced and structured; Monforte d’Alba and Serralunga d’Alba produce the most powerful, long-lived wines. Since 2010 single vineyards have been officially defined as Menzioni Geografiche Aggiuntive, or MGAs, such as Cannubi, Brunate and Bussia, and they appear on labels in the manner of Burgundian crus. Old debates between traditionalists using large old botti and modernists using small new barriques have largely softened. In service, young Barolo is tough: decant it, serve it in a large glass at 16 to 18 degrees, and steer guests to older vintages if available. It pairs with truffles, braised beef, game and aged cheeses. - Grape: Nebbiolo - Minimum 38 months ageing, Riserva 62 - Key communes: La Morra, Barolo, Castiglione Falletto, Monforte, Serralunga - MGAs are official named vineyards - Decant young Barolo #### Barbaresco and Roero Barbaresco, north-east of Alba, is Barolo’s smaller neighbour and is also made from Nebbiolo. The vineyards are a little lower and closer to the Tanaro river, and the wines are often described as more elegant and approachable earlier, though great Barbaresco ages for decades. The minimum ageing is 26 months, including nine months in wood, and Riserva needs 50 months. Its three main communes are Barbaresco, Neive and Treiso, with a fragment of San Rocco Seno d’Elvio, and named vineyards such as Rabajà, Asili and Montestefano appear on labels. The region’s co-operative, the Produttori del Barbaresco, is widely respected and a reliable choice for lists. Across the Tanaro, Roero makes lighter, sandier-soil Nebbiolo reds and, notably, white wine from the Arneis grape, whose pear and almond fruit makes it a good aperitif white. For buyers, Barbaresco can be better value than Barolo of similar quality. Langhe Nebbiolo, a broader appellation, gives the grape’s character in a younger, cheaper form and is an excellent by-the-glass or entry-bottle red for Piedmontese or Italian menus. - Grape: Nebbiolo - Minimum 26 months ageing, Riserva 50 - Communes: Barbaresco, Neive, Treiso - Roero makes Nebbiolo and Arneis - Langhe Nebbiolo is the entry point #### Northern Piedmont and Valtellina Nebbiolo is not confined to the Langhe. In northern Piedmont, in the foothills of the Alps, appellations such as Gattinara, Ghemme, Boca, Bramaterra and Lessona make Nebbiolo, locally called Spanna, often blended with small amounts of Vespolina, Croatina or Uva Rara. The soils are more volcanic and acidic, and the wines tend to be lighter, more mineral and fresher than Barolo, with strong appeal to sommeliers and good value for the quality. Over the border in Lombardy, Valtellina has Nebbiolo, known as Chiavennasca, planted on dramatic terraced slopes facing south above the Adda valley. Valtellina Superiore and its sub-zones, Sassella, Grumello, Inferno, Valgella and Maroggia, give fine, aromatic, alpine reds. Sforzato, or Sfursat, di Valtellina is made from dried grapes in the manner of Amarone and is powerful and rich. For lists, these regions answer the guest who wants Nebbiolo’s perfume and structure without Barolo prices. Serve them slightly cooler than heavy reds and pair with mountain food such as bresaola, polenta, mushroom risotto and pizzoccheri. - Northern Piedmont: Gattinara, Ghemme, Boca, Lessona - Spanna and Chiavennasca are Nebbiolo - Valtellina sub-zones include Sassella and Inferno - Sforzato is a dried-grape wine - Value Nebbiolo alternatives to Barolo #### Chianti Classico Chianti Classico is the historic heart of Chianti, between Florence and Siena, and a separate appellation from the much larger Chianti DOCG with its sub-zones such as Rufina and Colli Senesi. The black rooster, or gallo nero, on the neck of the bottle marks Chianti Classico. Wines must contain at least 80 per cent Sangiovese, and many top producers now use 100 per cent. There are three tiers: Annata, the basic wine; Riserva, with longer ageing; and Gran Selezione, introduced in 2014 as the top category and since tightened to require at least 90 per cent Sangiovese with only native grapes as the balance, and estate-grown fruit. In 2021 the consortium approved eleven village sub-zones, the Unità Geografiche Aggiuntive or UGAs, including Radda, Gaiole, Castellina, Panzano and Greve, which began appearing on Gran Selezione labels. Expect sour cherry, violets, dried herbs and earthy notes with lively acidity and firm tannins. It is a natural match for tomato-based dishes, grilled meats and bistecca alla fiorentina. For lists, separate Chianti Classico from generic Chianti to explain the price difference. - Minimum 80% Sangiovese - Black rooster marks Chianti Classico - Tiers: Annata, Riserva, Gran Selezione - Eleven UGA sub-zones approved 2021 - Separate appellation from Chianti DOCG #### Brunello and Rosso di Montalcino Montalcino, a hill town south of Siena, makes Brunello di Montalcino from Sangiovese alone, here locally called Brunello. It is one of Italy’s most prestigious reds: structured, deeply flavoured and long-lived, with cherry, leather, tobacco and earth. Rules require the wine to be released no earlier than five years after harvest, with at least two years in wood, and Riserva cannot be released until six years after the harvest. Because Brunello is expensive and slow to release, Rosso di Montalcino, from the same grape and territory but released much younger, is a hugely useful wine for restaurants: it shows the region’s character at a much lower price and is ready to drink. Sant’Antimo is another local appellation, permitting international grapes. Montalcino’s different slopes produce noticeably different styles: cooler, higher northern sites give fresher, more perfumed wines, while warmer southern sites give richer, more powerful ones. For service, decant younger Brunello and serve around 16 to 18 degrees. Pair with roast lamb, wild boar, game and pecorino. - Grape: 100% Sangiovese - Released five years after harvest - Riserva released six years after harvest - Rosso di Montalcino is the younger, cheaper sibling - Pairs with wild boar and game #### Vino Nobile and Montepulciano confusion Vino Nobile di Montepulciano is a Tuscan red from the hilltop town of Montepulciano, made principally from Sangiovese, locally called Prugnolo Gentile. It is often overlooked between Chianti Classico and Brunello but can offer excellent value, with a style between the two. Rosso di Montepulciano is its younger version. The great confusion for guests is the grape called Montepulciano, which has nothing to do with the town. The Montepulciano grape is grown mostly in the central and southern Adriatic regions and makes Montepulciano d’Abruzzo, a deeply coloured, soft, plummy red that is one of Italy’s best-value house wines. So a guest who asks for a Montepulciano may want either. Clarify by asking whether they mean the Tuscan wine or the Abruzzo wine, or by describing both. The town has also championed the term Pieve for sub-zones on Vino Nobile labels in recent years. For pairing, Vino Nobile suits roast meats and Tuscan dishes, while Montepulciano d’Abruzzo is an easy partner for pizza, pasta with meat sauce and barbecued food. - Vino Nobile is Sangiovese (Prugnolo Gentile) - Montepulciano is also an unrelated grape - Montepulciano d’Abruzzo is soft and plummy - Rosso di Montepulciano is the younger style - Always clarify which a guest means #### Bolgheri and Super Tuscans Super Tuscan began as an informal term for high-quality Tuscan wines made outside the official rules in the 1970s and 1980s, often using Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot or 100 per cent Sangiovese at a time when the regulations did not permit these. Because they did not fit the DOC rules, some of Italy’s most expensive wines were initially labelled as humble vino da tavola. The category was later brought within the system through the regional IGT Toscana classification and new DOCs. Bolgheri, on the coast near Livorno, is the most famous home of Bordeaux-style blends; its estate Sassicaia was granted its own DOC, Bolgheri Sassicaia, the first Italian single-estate appellation. Other well-known names come from Bolgheri and inland Tuscany. The style is generally ripe and polished, with blackcurrant, cedar, Mediterranean herbs and new oak. For a restaurant, Super Tuscans attract buyers seeking a famous Italian name, but basic Bolgheri Rosso offers the coastal style at a gentler price. Explain them as Bordeaux grapes grown in the Tuscan sun. - Originally made outside the DOC rules - Often Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot - Bolgheri on the Tuscan coast - Bolgheri Sassicaia was Italy’s first single-estate DOC - IGT Toscana covers many examples #### Valpolicella styles Valpolicella, north of Verona, makes four distinct styles from the same grapes, chiefly Corvina, Corvinone and Rondinella, and a list should make the differences clear. Valpolicella is the light, fresh, cherry-fruited everyday red, sometimes served slightly cool. Valpolicella Classico comes from the historic core of the region, and Superiore indicates a little more ageing and alcohol. Valpolicella Ripasso is refermented on the dried-grape skins left over from Amarone, adding body, alcohol and raisin notes; it is a popular mid-price wine that delivers some of Amarone’s richness at a lower cost. Amarone della Valpolicella is made from grapes dried for months, fermented dry, and is full-bodied and high in alcohol with flavours of dried cherry, chocolate and spice. Recioto della Valpolicella is the sweet, dried-grape version and a rare dessert match for chocolate. Valpantena is a sub-zone that may appear on labels. For floor staff, the progression from light Valpolicella through Ripasso to Amarone is a simple trade-up path to describe. Be aware that Amarone’s alcohol can be overwhelming with lighter food. - Grapes: Corvina, Corvinone, Rondinella - Ripasso: refermented on Amarone pomace - Amarone: dry, from dried grapes - Recioto: sweet, from dried grapes - Easy trade-up story for guests #### Soave and Lugana Soave, east of Verona, suffered for years from a reputation for bland bulk wine, but its Classico zone, on volcanic and limestone hills around the town of Soave and Monteforte d’Alpone, produces serious whites from the Garganega grape. Good Soave Classico has almond, white peach and floral notes with a mineral texture and can age surprisingly well. Recioto di Soave is a sweet, dried-grape wine. Producers such as those making single-vineyard wines show the grape’s quality at modest prices. Lugana, on the southern shore of Lake Garda, straddling Lombardy and the Veneto, is made from Turbiana, a grape closely related to Verdicchio. It has become popular in the UK and Germany as a characterful, mid-priced white with citrus, almond and a slightly oily texture. Both wines are excellent alternatives to Pinot Grigio for guests who want an Italian white with more personality, and they suit lake fish, risotto, light pasta dishes and vegetables. For a buyer, Soave Classico is often among the best-value Italian whites a list can carry. - Soave grape: Garganega - Soave Classico on volcanic and limestone hills - Lugana grape: Turbiana - Lugana straddles Lombardy and the Veneto - Characterful alternatives to Pinot Grigio #### Prosecco DOC, DOCG and Rive Prosecco is produced across a large area of the Veneto and Friuli from the Glera grape, mostly by the tank method, and its labels carry a quality hierarchy worth explaining. Prosecco DOC covers the widest area and the bulk of production. Prosecco Superiore DOCG comes from two historic hilly zones: Conegliano Valdobbiadene, whose steep hills were made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2019, and the smaller Asolo. Within Conegliano Valdobbiadene, the term Rive indicates wine from a single, often very steep village or hamlet, and Superiore di Cartizze is a famed small hill whose wines are usually made in a sweeter, Dry style. Since 2020, Prosecco Rosé, incorporating Pinot Noir, has been permitted within the DOC. Col fondo, or sui lieviti, refers to a traditional bottle-fermented, unfiltered style with sediment. Remember that Extra Dry Prosecco is sweeter than Brut. For restaurants, DOCG Prosecco gives a meaningful quality step for a small cost increase and sells well by the glass with a brief description of its hillside origins. - Grape: Glera - DOCG zones: Conegliano Valdobbiadene and Asolo - Rive indicates single villages - Prosecco Rosé allowed since 2020 - Col fondo is bottle-fermented with sediment #### Franciacorta and Trentodoc Italy makes traditional-method sparkling wines that rival Champagne. Franciacorta, in Lombardy near Lake Iseo, uses Chardonnay, Pinot Noir and Pinot Blanc, plus a small proportion of the local Erbamat, and requires longer lees ageing than Champagne for its non-vintage: at least 18 months on lees. Satèn is a Franciacorta style made only from white grapes at lower pressure, giving a softer, creamier mousse. Vintage wines, labelled Millesimato, and Riserva need longer ageing. Trentodoc, from the mountain valleys of Trentino, uses mainly Chardonnay and gives fresh, precise, alpine sparkling wines; its largest producer is a household name in Italy. Alta Langa in Piedmont and Oltrepò Pavese in Lombardy also make traditional-method sparkling. These wines are useful for a list because they offer Champagne-method quality, often at lower prices, and they suit Italian restaurants that want a full Italian list. Guests should be told they are made the same way as Champagne, not like Prosecco, which helps justify a higher price than Prosecco. - Franciacorta: traditional method, Lombardy - Non-vintage needs at least 18 months on lees - Satèn: white grapes, lower pressure - Trentodoc from Trentino mountains - Made like Champagne, not like Prosecco #### Friuli whites Friuli Venezia Giulia, in Italy’s north-east corner against Slovenia, is the country’s white-wine powerhouse. Collio and Friuli Colli Orientali, on hills near the Slovenian border, produce crisp, aromatic wines from local and international grapes. Friulano, the grape formerly called Tocai Friulano, gives almondy, herbal whites. Ribolla Gialla can be light and fresh or, from some producers, made with long skin contact in amphora as orange wine; the area around Oslavia is central to that movement. Malvasia Istriana is aromatic and saline. Sauvignon Blanc and Pinot Grigio thrive too, and Friulian Pinot Grigio is generally more serious than the bulk Veneto version. Blends of several white grapes are common and highly regarded. For reds, Refosco and the rare Schioppettino and Pignolo give distinctive, peppery wines. Friuli is also the home of the Picolit and Verduzzo sweet wines. For a list, Friulian whites give quality and diversity at moderate prices, pair well with seafood, prosciutto di San Daniele and vegetable dishes, and offer a step up from mass-market Pinot Grigio. - Key areas: Collio, Friuli Colli Orientali - Friulano was formerly Tocai Friulano - Ribolla Gialla: fresh or skin-contact - Reds: Refosco, Schioppettino, Pignolo - Serious Pinot Grigio source #### Alto Adige Alto Adige, or Südtirol, is Italy’s northernmost wine region, German-speaking and bilingual, with labels often in both languages. Vineyards climb steep slopes in the Adige valley around Bolzano, and the region is known for clean, precise, aromatic wines. Co-operatives, known as Kellerei or cantina, produce a large share and are among the most quality-focused in Europe. Whites dominate: Pinot Grigio, Pinot Bianco, Gewürztraminer (the village of Tramin is often cited as its namesake), Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Müller-Thurgau and Kerner. Reds include Lagrein, a dark, plummy grape, and Schiava, or Vernatsch, a pale, light red that is ideal chilled. Pinot Nero is also highly regarded. Prices are generally fair for the quality, and Alto Adige wines are reliable by-the-glass options. The region’s mountain climate preserves freshness, and the best wines come from higher sites. For pairing, Alto Adige whites suit speck, alpine cheeses, dumplings and light fish; Lagrein matches game and grilled meats. Explaining the Germanic culture helps guests understand the crisp, aromatic style. - Bilingual Italian-German labelling - Strong co-operative tradition - Reds: Lagrein, Schiava, Pinot Nero - Whites: Pinot Bianco, Gewürztraminer, Sauvignon - Mountain freshness at fair prices #### Etna Mount Etna, the active volcano in eastern Sicily, has become one of Italy’s most fashionable wine regions. Vineyards are planted on terraces of black volcanic soil at altitudes up to about 1,000 metres, where cool nights preserve acidity despite the Sicilian sun. Some vines are very old, ungrafted and trained as bush vines on single poles. The main red grape is Nerello Mascalese, usually blended with a little Nerello Cappuccio, giving pale-to-mid coloured reds with red cherry, herbs, smoke and fine tannins; they are often compared to Pinot Noir or Nebbiolo. The white grape is Carricante, giving crisp, citrus and saline wines; Etna Bianco Superiore must come from the commune of Milo. Producers identify individual lava flows and sites called contrade on their labels, the volcanic equivalent of crus, and these are increasingly sought after. Recognition from outside investors has pushed prices up. For a list, Etna Rosso is an excellent choice for guests who like elegant reds, and Etna Bianco works with grilled fish and Sicilian seafood dishes. - Red: Nerello Mascalese, Nerello Cappuccio - White: Carricante - Vineyards up to about 1,000 metres - Contrade are named sites - Etna Bianco Superiore from Milo #### Southern Italy reds Southern Italy offers some of the best-value and most characterful reds on any list. In Campania, Aglianico makes Taurasi, a powerful, tannic, long-lived red sometimes called the Barolo of the south; Aglianico del Vulture in Basilicata, grown on an extinct volcano, is similar. Puglia, the heel of Italy, produces Primitivo, genetically the same as Zinfandel, especially in Manduria, giving ripe, jammy, high-alcohol reds; and Negroamaro, especially in Salice Salentino, giving dark, slightly bitter, robust wines. Sicily’s Nero d’Avola is the island’s main red, juicy and dark-fruited, and Cerasuolo di Vittoria, a blend with Frappato, is Sicily’s only DOCG; Frappato alone makes light, fragrant reds that suit chilling. Calabria’s Gaglioppo makes Cirò. Sardinia’s Cannonau is Grenache. Prices are generally low because these regions lack the prestige of the north, so a restaurant can offer distinctive, food-friendly reds with good margin. Pair Primitivo with barbecued meat, Aglianico with rich ragù and game, Nero d’Avola with pizza and grilled sausages. - Aglianico: Taurasi and Vulture - Primitivo is Zinfandel - Negroamaro: Salice Salentino - Cerasuolo di Vittoria is Sicily’s only DOCG - Cannonau is Grenache #### Southern Italy whites Southern Italy makes impressive whites that most guests have never tried. Campania leads: Fiano di Avellino gives rich, nutty, honeyed wines with smoky notes that age well; Greco di Tufo, from sulphur-rich soils, is firmer and more mineral with stone fruit; and Falanghina, grown in several areas, is fresh, floral and easy-drinking, a popular by-the-glass wine. Campania also has the volcanic whites of the Campi Flegrei and Vesuvius, including Lacryma Christi. Sicily offers Grillo, crisp and citrusy, and widely used in Marsala; Catarratto, a workhorse; Zibibbo for aromatic dry and sweet wines; and Etna’s Carricante. Sardinia’s Vermentino di Gallura, the island’s only DOCG, gives saline, herbal whites. Puglia is less known for whites, but its Verdeca and Bombino Bianco are improving. These wines suit seafood, pasta with vegetables, mozzarella and lighter southern dishes. For a list, Falanghina and Grillo work as entry-level whites, while Fiano and Greco provide interest at mid-price. Most are made in stainless steel and drunk young, though Fiano rewards a few years. - Campania: Fiano, Greco, Falanghina - Sicily: Grillo, Catarratto, Carricante - Vermentino di Gallura is Sardinia’s only DOCG - Fiano can age well - Good seafood whites at modest prices #### Verdicchio and central Italian whites Central Italy has whites that deserve more space on lists. Verdicchio from the Marche, along the Adriatic, comes in two main appellations: Verdicchio dei Castelli di Jesi, the larger, and Verdicchio di Matelica, from a higher, inland valley with more acidity. Good Verdicchio has lemon, almond and fennel notes, a slightly bitter finish and surprising ageing potential; Riserva versions are DOCG. It was once sold in an amphora-shaped bottle that became a joke, but modern producers have restored its reputation. Pecorino, from the Marche and Abruzzo, is a white grape, not the cheese, giving crisp, herbal wines with good acidity; guests find the name funny, which helps sales. Trebbiano d’Abruzzo is usually simple, but a handful of producers make extraordinary, long-lived versions. In Umbria, Orvieto, based on Grechetto and Trebbiano, can be dry or sweet. Lazio has Frascati, near Rome, made from Malvasia and Trebbiano. These wines give fresh, food-friendly whites at good prices, suiting seafood, pasta and antipasti. - Verdicchio: Castelli di Jesi and Matelica - Pecorino is a grape as well as a cheese - Orvieto can be dry or sweet - Frascati from near Rome - Verdicchio Riserva is DOCG ### Iberian appellations #### Ribera del Duero and Toro Ribera del Duero, on a high plateau along the Duero river in Castilla y León, makes powerful reds principally from Tempranillo, known locally as Tinto Fino or Tinta del País. Altitudes of around 750 to 1,000 metres bring hot days and cold nights, giving deeply coloured wines with ripe black fruit and firm tannins, often aged in French or American oak. The region uses the same ageing terms as Rioja: joven, crianza, reserva and gran reserva. It has some of Spain’s most celebrated and expensive estates. Further west along the river, Toro makes even more muscular wines from Tinta de Toro, a local Tempranillo variant, with high alcohol and sturdy tannins. Rueda, between them, is the source of Spain’s crisp white Verdejo. For a list, Ribera crianza is a reliable choice for guests who want a substantial Spanish red, and it pairs well with roast lamb, the regional speciality, steak and hard cheeses. Compared with Rioja, Ribera tends to be darker and more concentrated, with less of the traditional oxidative character of old-style Rioja. - Grape: Tempranillo (Tinto Fino) - High plateau, hot days, cold nights - Same ageing terms as Rioja - Toro: muscular Tinta de Toro - Pairs with roast lamb #### Rías Baixas and Galicia Galicia, in Spain’s green, rainy north-west, is home to some of the country’s freshest wines. Rías Baixas, along the Atlantic coast and its estuaries, is dominated by Albariño, which makes crisp, aromatic whites with peach, citrus and saline notes. The appellation has five sub-zones, including Val do Salnés, the coolest and most classic, and O Rosal and Condado do Tea near the Portuguese border, where blends with Loureiro and Treixadura are common. Vines are traditionally trained on high pergolas to keep the fruit away from humid ground. Inland, Ribeiro makes blends based on Treixadura; Ribeira Sacra, on dramatic terraced slopes along the Sil and Miño rivers, makes fragrant, light reds from Mencía; Valdeorras is known for the white grape Godello, which gives richer, textured wines; and Monterrei sits on the Portuguese border. These wines pair naturally with seafood, Galician octopus and shellfish. On a list, Godello is a good alternative to Chardonnay, and Ribeira Sacra Mencía is a stylish light red for guests who like Pinot Noir. - Rías Baixas: Albariño - Val do Salnés is the classic sub-zone - Godello from Valdeorras - Ribeira Sacra makes Mencía on terraces - Pergola training against humidity #### Rioja ageing and zones Rioja’s classification has evolved beyond the familiar ageing terms. Crianza requires at least two years’ ageing including one in oak for reds; Reserva, three years including one in oak; Gran Reserva, five years including two in oak, though many producers exceed these. Since 2017, Rioja has recognised zones and villages: wines can be labelled with one of three zones, Rioja Alta, Rioja Alavesa and Rioja Oriental (formerly Rioja Baja), or with a village name, and Viñedo Singular indicates a single vineyard meeting strict standards. Rioja Alta and Alavesa, at higher altitude, give finer, more structured wines; Oriental, warmer and lower, gives riper wines, often with more Garnacha. Tempranillo dominates, blended with Garnacha, Graciano and Mazuelo (Carignan). The old style relied on long ageing in American oak, giving vanilla, dill and savoury, oxidative notes; modern producers use more French oak and emphasise fruit. Rioja whites, especially aged traditional versions from Viura, are worth listing. For sales, Reserva is often the sweet spot of quality and value. - Crianza, Reserva, Gran Reserva ageing rules - Three zones: Alta, Alavesa, Oriental - Viñedo Singular for single vineyards - Grapes: Tempranillo, Garnacha, Graciano, Mazuelo - Traditional style uses American oak #### Priorat and Montsant Priorat, in Catalonia south-west of Barcelona, is one of only two Spanish regions with the top DOQ, or DOCa, status, alongside Rioja. Its vineyards cling to steep slopes of crumbly slate and quartz called llicorella, which forces vines to root deeply and produces tiny yields. The wines, based on old-vine Garnacha and Cariñena, often with Syrah or Cabernet, are intense, dark and mineral, with high alcohol and a reputation for power. The region was revived in the late 1980s by a small group of winemakers, and prices for the top wines rose sharply. Priorat has developed a classification of village wines and single vineyards. Montsant, which almost completely surrounds Priorat, uses similar grapes on more varied soils and offers much of the style at far lower prices, making it a smart list choice. Both suit grilled meats, lamb and rich stews. Priorat’s alcohol can be high, so serve it cool. When selling, describe the slate soils and steep terraces, which help explain both the flavour and the price. - Priorat holds DOQ status - Llicorella slate and quartz soils - Grapes: Garnacha, Cariñena - Montsant surrounds Priorat; better value - Revived in the late 1980s #### Cava zones and Corpinnat Cava is Spain’s traditional-method sparkling wine, made largely in Penedès in Catalonia from Macabeo, Xarel·lo and Parellada, with Chardonnay and Pinot Noir also permitted. It has been reformed to address a reputation for cheap bubbles: since 2020, Cava has zones, with Comtats de Barcelona the main one, and quality tiers based on ageing. Cava Guarda requires at least nine months on lees; Cava de Guarda Superior at least 18 months for Reserva, 30 for Gran Reserva, and Cava de Paraje Calificado, single-site Cava, at least 36 months. Organic certification is required for Guarda Superior wines. Frustrated by Cava’s image, some leading producers left the appellation and formed Corpinnat, a collective brand with strict rules on hand harvest, organic grapes and long ageing. Others use the Clàssic Penedès designation. For restaurants, a good Reserva Cava gives traditional-method complexity at a price well below Champagne and is a fine choice for sparkling by the glass. Explain that it is made the same way as Champagne, using Spanish grapes. - Main grapes: Macabeo, Xarel·lo, Parellada - Cava Guarda: minimum 9 months on lees - Gran Reserva: minimum 30 months - Corpinnat is a breakaway producer group - Traditional method, like Champagne #### Sherry styles in service Sherry is covered as a category elsewhere; this is about running it on the floor. Fino and manzanilla should be served chilled, in a white wine glass rather than a small copita, and treated as fresh white wine: refrigerated once opened and finished within a week or so, ideally sooner. Half bottles are useful for low-volume venues. En rama bottlings, lightly filtered and released seasonally, are fresher and more intense and make a good talking point. Amontillado and palo cortado are best at cellar temperature or lightly chilled and keep for a few weeks. Oloroso is fine at room temperature and lasts longer still. Pedro Ximénez is intensely sweet and can be poured over vanilla ice cream as a simple dessert. Cream sherries are blends. For pairing, fino with ham, almonds, olives, fried fish and tempura; manzanilla with seafood; amontillado with consommé, mushrooms and aged cheeses; oloroso with game, oxtail and hard cheese. Offering a sherry flight is a low-cost way to introduce guests to the category, and margins can be excellent because sherry is still modestly priced. - Fino and manzanilla: chilled, short life once open - En rama: lightly filtered, seasonal - Oloroso keeps longest once opened - PX over ice cream is an easy dessert - Flights build interest at good margin #### Montilla-Moriles Montilla-Moriles, in the province of Córdoba in Andalucía, makes wines similar to sherry using the solera system, with one important difference: the main grape, Pedro Ximénez, ripens to such high sugar levels in the hot inland climate that many wines reach the alcohol needed for flor or oxidative ageing naturally, without fortification. Fino from Montilla-Moriles is therefore often unfortified, and some guests find it softer and rounder than Jerez fino. The region also makes amontillado, oloroso and palo cortado, and is especially famous for sweet Pedro Ximénez wines made from sun-dried grapes, intensely raisined and syrupy, including very old solera wines. Historically, much Montilla-Moriles wine was sold to Jerez for blending. The word amontillado itself means in the style of Montilla. Prices are usually lower than for Jerez equivalents, so Montilla-Moriles is a good source for PX by the glass and for affordable fino. In service, treat it exactly like sherry of the same style, with the same storage and pairing rules. - Main grape: Pedro Ximénez - Many wines reach strength without fortification - Uses solera ageing - Amontillado means in the style of Montilla - Good-value PX for by-the-glass #### Jumilla, Yecla and Monastrell In south-eastern Spain, the hot, dry regions of Jumilla, Yecla and Alicante are home to Monastrell, the grape known in France as Mourvèdre. Here it is grown on old, often ungrafted bush vines that survive drought, and it produces dark, ripe, full-bodied reds with black fruit, herbs and a meaty, gamey edge. Jumilla wines in particular offer remarkable concentration at very low prices, which makes them useful for house red or entry-level bottles. Modern producers are picking earlier and using less oak to make fresher styles. Alicante also makes Fondillón, a rare, historic, oxidatively aged wine from overripe Monastrell, and sweet Moscatel. Valencia and Utiel-Requena produce Bobal, a deeply coloured grape that makes juicy reds and rosés. For a buyer, these regions provide crowd-pleasing, generous reds that suit barbecue, burgers, grilled meat and stews. They can be heavy, so warn guests who prefer lighter wines and serve them a little cooler than room temperature. These are good options when you need a robust red at a low cost price. - Monastrell is Mourvèdre - Old bush vines, often ungrafted - Jumilla gives value and concentration - Bobal from Utiel-Requena - Fondillón is a rare oxidative wine #### Portuguese table wine regions Portugal is one of the best-value wine countries for UK lists, with a huge range of native grapes. The Douro, famous for port, now makes excellent dry reds from blends of Touriga Nacional, Touriga Franca and Tinta Roriz (Tempranillo), and crisp whites from high sites. Dão, in the mountainous centre, makes elegant, fresh reds with Touriga Nacional and Jaen, and fine whites from Encruzado. Bairrada, near the coast, is home to Baga, a tannic, high-acid red grape that can resemble Nebbiolo, and to traditional-method sparkling. Alentejo, the hot south, produces soft, ripe reds and whites at friendly prices. Vinho Verde in the north makes light, fresh whites, and its Monção e Melgaço sub-region makes serious Alvarinho. Lisboa and Tejo give value. Madeira is the island’s fortified wine, while the Setúbal peninsula makes Moscatel de Setúbal. Colares, on sandy coastal soils, has ungrafted Ramisco vines. For a list, Portuguese wines offer distinctive grape stories, often blends, and lower prices than equivalent French or Italian wines. - Douro makes dry reds and whites as well as port - Dão: Touriga Nacional and Encruzado - Bairrada: Baga and sparkling - Alentejo: soft, ripe, value wines - Vinho Verde: Alvarinho in Monção e Melgaço #### Portugal’s port categories in service Port is covered elsewhere as a category; this entry is about the categories a floor team must explain. Ruby is young, fruity and blended; Reserve ruby is a step up. Late Bottled Vintage, or LBV, comes from a single year and is aged four to six years in wood before bottling; filtered LBVs are ready to drink and keep for weeks once opened, while unfiltered, traditional LBVs may need decanting. Vintage Port is from a declared year, bottled after about two years, and needs decades in bottle; it throws heavy sediment and should be decanted and drunk within a day or two of opening. Single-quinta vintage ports come from one estate, often in undeclared years, and are usually better value. Tawny is aged in barrel, gaining nutty, caramel flavours, and age-dated tawnies of 10, 20, 30 and 40 years indicate the style, not a precise age. Colheita is a single-vintage tawny. White and rosé ports make aperitifs and mixers. For service, tawny is best served lightly chilled and keeps well once opened, making it ideal for by-the-glass. - LBV aged four to six years in wood - Vintage port must be decanted - Age-dated tawny indicates style, not exact age - Colheita is single-vintage tawny - Tawny keeps well once opened #### Madeira styles in service Madeira, from the Portuguese island in the Atlantic, is famous for its near-indestructibility. Because it is heated and oxidised during production, an opened bottle can last for months, which makes it valuable for by-the-glass programmes. Styles are named after grapes, which also indicate sweetness: Sercial is the driest, with high acidity and a nutty, citrus edge; Verdelho is medium-dry; Bual, or Boal, is medium-sweet; and Malmsey, from Malvasia, is the sweetest and richest. Terrantez and Bastardo are rarer historic varieties. Wines without a variety on the label are often made from Tinta Negra, the most planted grape, and labelled by style, such as dry or rich. Age indications include 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, and over 50 years. Colheita is a single-vintage Madeira aged at least five years, and Frasqueira, or vintage Madeira, is aged at least twenty years in cask. Rainwater is a lighter, medium-dry style. Pair Sercial with consommé and nuts, Malmsey with chocolate and Christmas cake. Its acidity keeps even sweet styles fresh. - Driest to sweetest: Sercial, Verdelho, Bual, Malmsey - Tinta Negra is the most planted grape - Frasqueira aged at least 20 years in cask - Lasts months once opened - Rainwater is a lighter style #### Canary Islands wine The Canary Islands, off the coast of Africa, have become a sommelier favourite for their volcanic wines. Vines were never attacked by phylloxera, so many are ungrafted, and some are very old. The landscape is dramatic: on Lanzarote, vines are planted in hollows dug into black volcanic ash and protected by semicircular stone walls against the wind; on Tenerife, the traditional cordón trenzado method braids long vine canes into ropes. The main grapes are Listán Blanco (Palomino) and Malvasía Volcánica for whites, and Listán Negro, Negramoll (Tinta Negra) and Baboso Negro for reds. The wines are generally fresh, smoky, mineral and savoury, often with moderate alcohol despite the subtropical latitude, thanks to altitude and Atlantic winds. Historically the islands were famous for sweet Malvasía, known in Shakespeare’s time as Canary sack. For a list, Canary reds and whites offer a distinctive volcanic story and are good with fish, vegetables and lighter meat dishes. Volumes are small and prices reflect the hand labour, but they provide strong interest. - Many vines ungrafted, phylloxera-free - Lanzarote vines in hollows in volcanic ash - Cordón trenzado braided vines on Tenerife - Grapes: Listán Blanco, Listán Negro, Malvasía - Historic Canary sack ### German and Austrian wine #### German Prädikat levels German labels can intimidate, but the Prädikat system is about the ripeness of the grapes at harvest, not the sweetness of the finished wine. In ascending order: Kabinett, the lightest, often low in alcohol and fresh; Spätlese, late harvest; Auslese, selected bunches, often with some botrytis; Beerenauslese, individually selected overripe berries usually affected by noble rot; Trockenbeerenauslese, shrivelled botrytis berries giving extremely sweet, rare wines; and Eiswein, from grapes frozen on the vine. Kabinett and Spätlese can be dry, off-dry or sweet depending on the producer. The word trocken means dry and halbtrocken or feinherb mean off-dry. Many top producers belong to the VDP association, which has its own classification: Gutswein, Ortswein, Erste Lage and Grosse Lage, with Grosses Gewächs, marked GG, the top dry wines from Grosse Lage sites. VDP members often reserve Prädikat terms for wines with residual sweetness. For staff, the key is to tell guests whether a German Riesling is dry or sweet, not just its Prädikat, and to taste every bottle on the list. - Prädikat measures ripeness, not sweetness - Order: Kabinett, Spätlese, Auslese, BA, TBA, Eiswein - Trocken means dry; feinherb off-dry - GG means top dry wine from a Grosse Lage - Always state sweetness to the guest #### Rheingau, Pfalz and Rheinhessen Beyond the Mosel, Germany’s key Riesling regions each have their own style. The Rheingau, where the Rhine flows west for a stretch, has a long south-facing slope and gives Riesling that is often fuller and firmer than Mosel, with notable dry wines and historic estates; it also has Assmannshausen, famous for Spätburgunder, German Pinot Noir. The Pfalz, in the south-west bordering Alsace, is warmer and sunnier, making riper, fuller dry Rieslings and an increasing amount of serious Pinot Noir and Pinot Blanc. Rheinhessen, the largest German region, once known for cheap sweet wine, has been transformed by ambitious younger producers, especially in the Roter Hang red slate slope around Nierstein and in sites around Westhofen. The Nahe is a small region with diverse soils and elegant Rieslings. Baden, in the south, is the warmest region and the leading source of German Pinot Noir and Pinot Gris. Franken, with its flagon-shaped Bocksbeutel bottle, is known for Silvaner. For lists, dry German Riesling from the Pfalz or Rheinhessen offers quality at prices well below white Burgundy. - Rheingau: firmer, historic estates - Pfalz: warmer, riper dry Riesling - Rheinhessen: largest region, transformed - Baden: Pinot Noir and Pinot Gris - Franken: Silvaner in Bocksbeutel #### German Pinot Noir Germany is one of the world’s largest producers of Pinot Noir, which it calls Spätburgunder, and quality has risen dramatically since the 1990s. Warmer vintages have helped, along with better clones, lower yields and more thoughtful winemaking. Baden, in the south-west, has the most plantings, with excellent wines from the Kaiserstuhl, a volcanic hill, and other sites. The Pfalz, Rheingau and the small Ahr valley, a steep, slate region in the north that produces mostly red wine, are other important sources. Styles range from light, fresh and fruity to structured, oaked wines with Burgundian ambition. Frühburgunder, an early-ripening mutation of Pinot Noir, makes a softer red. For restaurants, German Pinot Noir is a sensible alternative to Burgundy at a lower price and gives a talking point; many guests do not know Germany makes red wine at all. Expect red cherry, earth and spice with good acidity. It pairs with duck, game birds, mushroom dishes and salmon. Labels may use Pinot Noir or Spätburgunder, so be prepared to translate for guests. - Spätburgunder is German Pinot Noir - Baden has the most plantings - Ahr is a small, mostly red region - Frühburgunder is an early-ripening mutation - Alternative to Burgundy at lower prices #### Austrian classification and DAC Austria organises its quality wines through the DAC, Districtus Austriae Controllatus, system, which links regions to their typical grapes and styles, much like French appellations. Examples include Weinviertel DAC for Grüner Veltliner, Kamptal and Kremstal for Grüner and Riesling, Wachau, and Mittelburgenland for Blaufränkisch. Many DACs now use a three-tier pyramid: Gebietswein, regional wine; Ortswein, village wine; and Riedenwein, single-vineyard wine, with Ried meaning vineyard on labels. The Wachau has its own traditional categories set by its producers’ association: Steinfeder for light wines, Federspiel for medium-bodied and Smaragd for the richest, ripest wines. The Österreichische Traditionsweingüter association has classified top sites in several regions as Erste Lage. Austria also maintains strict laboratory and tasting checks, and the red-white-red band on capsules indicates quality wine. For restaurants, Austria offers reliable, precise, food-friendly wines, and Grüner Veltliner in particular has become a staple for its versatility with vegetables, salads and Asian flavours. - DAC links region with grape style - Pyramid: Gebietswein, Ortswein, Riedenwein - Wachau: Steinfeder, Federspiel, Smaragd - Ried means single vineyard - Red-white-red capsule band for quality wine #### Austrian reds Austria’s red wines come mostly from the warmer east, especially Burgenland near the Hungarian border, and the Carnuntum and Thermenregion areas near Vienna. Blaufränkisch, called Lemberger in Germany and Kékfrankos in Hungary, is the most important quality red grape: it gives medium- to full-bodied wines with dark cherry, blackberry, pepper and a mineral, spicy freshness. Mittelburgenland and the Leithaberg are key areas, and Eisenberg makes fine Blaufränkisch on slate. Zweigelt, a cross of Blaufränkisch and St Laurent, is Austria’s most planted red, giving soft, juicy, cherry-scented wines ideal for by-the-glass or chilled serving. St Laurent, related to Pinot Noir, makes silky, fragrant reds. Pinot Noir is also grown. Blends called Cuvée are common, sometimes incorporating international varieties. For a list, Blaufränkisch provides an alternative to Syrah or Pinot Noir with plenty of freshness and is excellent with game, pork and roast duck. Zweigelt is a good-value, easy-drinking red for casual dining and pairs with charcuterie and grilled sausages. - Blaufränkisch is Austria’s key quality red - Zweigelt is the most planted red - St Laurent is related to Pinot Noir - Burgenland is the main red region - Blaufränkisch also known as Kékfrankos ### European appellations #### Swiss wine Switzerland produces wines of high quality, but almost all of it is drunk at home, and only a tiny share is exported, so Swiss wines are rare on UK lists and expensive. The main grape is Chasselas, which gives delicate, low-acid, mineral whites; it is known by different names, such as Fendant in the Valais. Lavaux, on steep terraces above Lake Geneva, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and its villages, such as Dézaley and Calamin, are prized. The Valais, along the upper Rhône, is the largest canton for wine and has many native grapes: Petite Arvine, a saline, citrus white; Cornalin and Humagne Rouge for reds; and Heida, a local Savagnin. Pinot Noir is Switzerland’s most planted red, and blends with Gamay called Dôle are traditional in the Valais. The German-speaking cantons make light Pinot Noir and Müller-Thurgau. For a restaurant, Swiss wines are a curiosity and conversation piece; Chasselas pairs well with cheese fondue, raclette and lake fish. Expect to pay more than for comparable wines from neighbouring countries. - Chasselas is the main white - Fendant is Chasselas in the Valais - Lavaux terraces are UNESCO-listed - Petite Arvine and Cornalin are Valais natives - Little is exported #### Slovenia and Croatia The wines of the Adriatic coast and the Balkans are increasingly available in the UK. Slovenia makes high-quality wines in three regions: Primorska, near the Italian border, including Goriška Brda, which continues Italy’s Collio and is known for Rebula (Ribolla Gialla) and skin-contact orange wines; Podravje in the north-east, making aromatic whites such as Šipon (Furmint) and Laški Rizling; and Posavje in the south-east. The Vipava valley is known for local grapes such as Zelen and Pinela. Croatia has many native grapes: Plavac Mali, a relative of Zinfandel, makes powerful reds on the Dalmatian coast, especially from steep sites such as Dingač and Postup on the Pelješac peninsula; Pošip and Grk are coastal whites; Malvazija Istarska from Istria gives saline, aromatic whites; Graševina, or Welschriesling, dominates continental Croatia. For a list, these wines offer novelty, diverse styles and stories, and generally fair prices. They suit Mediterranean seafood, grilled fish and cured meats. Be ready to pronounce the grape names confidently. - Goriška Brda continues Italy’s Collio - Rebula is Ribolla Gialla - Plavac Mali makes powerful Dalmatian reds - Malvazija Istarska from Istria - Graševina is Welschriesling #### Tokaji styles Tokaj in north-east Hungary is covered elsewhere as a region; this entry is about the styles on a list. Tokaji Aszú is the famous sweet wine, made by adding botrytised aszú berries, crushed to a paste, to a base wine or fermenting must. Its sweetness was traditionally expressed in puttonyos, the number of baskets of aszú berries added to a barrel; modern rules require at least five puttonyos, around 120 grams per litre of residual sugar, with six puttonyos sweeter still. Eszencia is the free-run juice from aszú berries that ferments extremely slowly to very low alcohol and enormous sweetness, a rarity sometimes served by the spoon. Szamorodni is made from whole bunches with some botrytis, and can be dry, száraz, or sweet, édes; the dry version, aged under a film of yeast, resembles fino sherry. Late-harvest wines, labelled késői szüretelésű, are fresher and cheaper. Dry Furmint has become a serious category. In service, Aszú pairs with foie gras, blue cheese and fruit desserts, and its high acidity keeps it from cloying. - Aszú: botrytised berries added to base wine - Minimum five puttonyos for Aszú - Eszencia is extremely sweet, very low alcohol - Szamorodni can be dry or sweet - High acidity balances sweetness #### Greek appellations Greece is covered as a country elsewhere; this entry focuses on the names that appear on lists. Santorini is a volcanic island making Assyrtiko in bush vines trained into baskets called kouloura to protect them from wind; the wines are powerfully mineral, high in acidity and age well, and Vinsanto is the island’s sweet wine from sun-dried grapes. Naoussa in Macedonia makes Xinomavro, a red often compared to Nebbiolo for its high tannin and acidity and flavours of tomato, olive and red fruit. Nemea in the Peloponnese is home to Agiorgitiko, a soft, plummy red that is easy to sell. Mantinia makes aromatic, crisp whites from Moschofilero. Retsina, flavoured with pine resin, has been reinvented by quality producers. Malagousia is an aromatic white rescued from near extinction. Crete has Vidiano and Liatiko. Greek wines suit Mediterranean food, grilled fish, lamb and mezze, and offer distinctive flavours at fair prices, though Santorini’s popularity has raised prices sharply. Staff should practise pronunciation to sell them confidently. - Santorini: Assyrtiko in kouloura baskets - Naoussa: Xinomavro - Nemea: Agiorgitiko - Mantinia: Moschofilero - Retsina has quality producers ### Grapes worth listing #### Furmint, Hárslevelű and Kékfrankos Hungary’s grapes are underused on UK lists. Furmint is covered elsewhere, but its partner Hárslevelű, meaning linden leaf, deserves a mention: it is softer, more aromatic and spicier than Furmint, and is often blended with it in Tokaj, while varietal dry versions show honey, linden and pear. Kékfrankos, the Hungarian name for Blaufränkisch, makes fresh, peppery reds, notably in Sopron near the Austrian border and in Eger. Eger is also the home of Bikavér, or Bull’s Blood, a blend that has been reformed to emphasise Kékfrankos and quality. Villány, in the south, makes richer reds from Cabernet Franc, Portugieser and Bordeaux varieties. Olaszrizling, Welschriesling, is grown around Lake Balaton, where volcanic hills such as Badacsony and Somló produce mineral, powerful whites; Juhfark is a rare, distinctive white from Somló. Kadarka, a historic red, is being revived for light, spicy wines. For a list, Hungarian wines offer real value and novelty. Present them with a short description of the grape and style to help guests choose. - Hárslevelű means linden leaf - Kékfrankos is Blaufränkisch - Eger Bikavér is a red blend - Somló and Badacsony: volcanic whites - Kadarka being revived #### Aligoté Aligoté is Burgundy’s other white grape, long dismissed as a thin, acidic wine fit only for mixing with crème de cassis to make Kir. It has gained respect thanks to growers who give old vines and good sites serious attention. The appellation Bourgogne Aligoté covers most of the region; Bouzeron in the Côte Chalonnaise is the only village appellation dedicated to it and generally gives richer, rounder wines. Good Aligoté has lemon, green apple and white flower notes with lively acidity and a lighter body than Chardonnay. Some producers make it from very old vines, sometimes labelled vieilles vignes, and it can show surprising depth. It is a useful wine for restaurants because it provides a genuinely Burgundian white at low cost, and it is a natural aperitif and partner for oysters, snails with garlic butter, gougères and goat’s cheese. There is also a renewed interest in the grape from growers who describe its historic role in Burgundy. Selling it, start by mentioning the Kir connection, then position it as Burgundy’s fresh, lively alternative to Chablis. - Burgundy’s second white grape - Bouzeron is its only village appellation - Historic base for Kir - Old-vine versions show depth - Value alternative to Chablis #### Marsanne and Roussanne Marsanne and Roussanne are white grapes from the northern Rhône, usually blended, that make full-bodied, textured whites with low to moderate acidity and flavours of pear, honeysuckle, almond and herbal tea. Marsanne is the more productive and gives weight and richness; Roussanne, more difficult to grow, brings aroma, freshness and finesse. They make the white wines of Hermitage, Crozes-Hermitage, Saint-Joseph and Saint-Péray, and Roussanne is used in Châteauneuf-du-Pape blanc and across the southern Rhône. Savoie’s Bergeron is Roussanne. In Australia, Victoria’s Goulburn Valley has some of the world’s oldest Marsanne vines, and both grapes are grown in California by producers inspired by the Rhône. Aged white Hermitage can develop remarkable honey, nut and beeswax notes over decades, sometimes after a quiet period when it seems closed. On a list, these wines answer guests who want a rich white other than Chardonnay. They pair with lobster, rich fish, roast chicken, pork and creamy sauces. Serve at around 10 to 12 degrees so the texture shows. - Usually blended together - Marsanne gives weight; Roussanne aroma - Make the white wines of the northern Rhône - Old Marsanne vines in Victoria, Australia - Serve not too cold #### Godello and Verdejo Spain’s two most important white grapes after Albariño are worth knowing. Godello, from Valdeorras, Bierzo and Ribeira Sacra in north-west Spain, was nearly extinct in the 1970s before being revived. It makes medium- to full-bodied whites with stone fruit, citrus, herbs and a mineral texture; oaked and lees-aged versions can resemble white Burgundy, which makes Godello a smart alternative for Chardonnay drinkers at a lower price. Verdejo is the grape of Rueda, in Castilla y León, where it is often blended with Sauvignon Blanc. It makes crisp, aromatic whites with citrus, fennel and a slightly bitter almond finish; much Rueda is simple, cheap and cheerful, ideal as a house white, but a few producers make serious, lees-aged or barrel-fermented Verdejo. Viura, also called Macabeo, is the main grape of white Rioja and Cava. For a list, Rueda Verdejo is a reliable alternative to Sauvignon Blanc at an affordable price, and Godello adds a more serious white option. Both pair with tapas, seafood, grilled fish and salads. - Godello from Valdeorras and Bierzo - Godello was nearly extinct in the 1970s - Verdejo is Rueda’s grape - Rueda often blended with Sauvignon Blanc - Viura is also called Macabeo #### Garnacha Blanca and Xarel·lo Catalonia and north-east Spain have white grapes that make interesting list additions. Garnacha Blanca, the white form of Grenache, is grown in Terra Alta, Priorat and across the south of France as Grenache Blanc; it gives full-bodied, round whites with green apple, pear and herbal notes, and Terra Alta in particular has built a reputation for it. Xarel·lo is one of the three Cava grapes and the one that gives structure and ageing potential; increasingly it is bottled as a still white, giving savoury, herbal wines with good acidity and a slightly saline finish, often from old vines. Macabeo and Parellada complete the Cava trio, the latter giving delicate floral notes. Other Spanish whites include Malvasía, found in Rioja, Sitges and the Canary Islands; and Hondarrabi Zuri, the grape of the Basque txakoli, a light, slightly fizzy, low-alcohol white traditionally poured from a height. For a restaurant with a Spanish or Mediterranean theme, these wines add variety at fair prices and pair well with seafood, rice dishes and grilled vegetables. - Garnacha Blanca: full-bodied, Terra Alta - Xarel·lo gives Cava structure - Still Xarel·lo is increasingly popular - Txakoli uses Hondarrabi Zuri - Txakoli poured from a height #### Trousseau and Poulsard These two Jura red grapes are fashionable among sommeliers for their pale, light, fragrant wines. Poulsard, also called Ploussard, is thin-skinned and gives such pale wine that it can look like rosé, with delicate red berry, rose and spice flavours and very little tannin. It is often made with little sulphur and served slightly chilled. Trousseau is darker and more structured, with red fruit, earth and pepper. Trousseau is the same grape as Portugal’s Bastardo and is also grown in Galicia as Merenzao and in California and Australia. Both are often made by natural or low-intervention producers in the Jura, so bottles can vary. In service, Poulsard and Trousseau suit guests who want light reds and pair well with charcuterie, roast chicken, mushrooms and Comté. Explain the pale colour before pouring so guests do not think something is wrong. These wines are rarely cheap because production is small, but they add character to a list built around lighter, fresher styles. Store them cool, as low-sulphur bottles can be sensitive to heat. - Poulsard: very pale, delicate - Trousseau: darker, peppery - Trousseau is Bastardo in Portugal - Often low-intervention - Serve slightly chilled #### Mourvèdre and Carignan Mourvèdre and Carignan are southern grapes whose reputations have improved. Mourvèdre, known as Monastrell in Spain and Mataró in Australia, needs a lot of heat and sun to ripen and gives dark, tannic, gamey wines with black fruit, herbs and leather. It is the star of Bandol, a key part of southern Rhône and Languedoc blends, and the M in the Australian GSM blend of Grenache, Shiraz and Mourvèdre. Carignan, known as Cariñena or Mazuelo in Spain and Carignano in Sardinia, was once planted widely for bulk wine and has a reputation for high acidity, tannin and rustic flavours. But old, low-yielding bush vines can give concentrated, savoury wines of real character, and producers in the Languedoc, Priorat, Sardinia’s Carignano del Sulcis and Chile’s Maule valley have shown what it can do. Carbonic maceration is sometimes used to soften it. On a list, old-vine Carignan is an affordable conversation piece. Both grapes pair with grilled meats, lamb, stews and Mediterranean food. - Mourvèdre is Monastrell and Mataró - M in GSM blends - Carignan is Cariñena, Mazuelo, Carignano - Old vines give quality Carignan - Chile’s Maule has old Carignan #### Cinsault and Counoise Cinsault, spelled Cinsaut in South Africa, is a southern French grape that gives light-coloured, aromatic, low-tannin reds and is one of the most important grapes in Provence rosé, valued for its freshness and red-fruit perfume. It is permitted in Châteauneuf-du-Pape and much of the Languedoc. In South Africa, Cinsault was crossed with Pinot Noir to create Pinotage, and old-vine Cinsault from the Western Cape has been revived by producers as a light, juicy red. Chile’s Itata valley has old dry-farmed Cinsault vines too. In Lebanon, it is part of traditional red blends. Counoise is another southern Rhône grape, permitted in Châteauneuf, giving spicy, fresh, light reds; it is rarely bottled alone but adds lift to blends. These grapes are useful for restaurants because they give light, chillable reds and rosés that suit summer menus and lighter dishes. They pair well with charcuterie, Mediterranean vegetables, grilled fish and salads. Light reds are popular with younger drinkers, and Cinsault offers the style at a modest price. - Cinsault is key in Provence rosé - Crossed with Pinot Noir to make Pinotage - Old vines in South Africa and Chile’s Itata - Counoise adds spice to Rhône blends - Good chillable red #### Petit Verdot and Malbec in Bordeaux Bordeaux blends are dominated by Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Cabernet Franc, but two minor grapes play a role and appear more often on New World labels. Petit Verdot ripens late and was historically difficult in Bordeaux, so only a few per cent is used; it adds deep colour, tannin and violet, spice aromas. In warmer regions such as Australia, Spain, Virginia and California, it ripens fully and is sometimes bottled alone, giving dark, intense, tannic wines. Malbec was once widely planted in Bordeaux but was reduced after the frosts of 1956; it is still used in small amounts, particularly on the Right Bank and in Bourg and Blaye. Its main homes are Cahors in France and Mendoza in Argentina. Carménère, another historical Bordeaux grape, is now associated with Chile. Bordeaux rules also now allow a few new grapes, chosen for climate resilience, such as Touriga Nacional and Marselan, in small proportions in Bordeaux and Bordeaux Supérieur. For staff, these minor grapes explain the blends and provide an opportunity to talk about climate change. - Petit Verdot adds colour and tannin - Malbec reduced in Bordeaux after 1956 frost - Carménère is now associated with Chile - New climate-resilient grapes now permitted - Varietal Petit Verdot in warm regions #### Picpoul, Clairette and Bourboulenc Several southern French white grapes have become useful for restaurant lists. Picpoul, meaning lip-stinger because of its acidity, makes Picpoul de Pinet in the Languedoc, a crisp, lemony white that has become a popular by-the-glass wine and an alternative to Muscadet with seafood. Clairette is an old Provençal grape that gives fresh, aromatic wines and features in Châteauneuf-du-Pape blanc and Bandol blanc, as well as Clairette de Die, a sparkling wine from the Drôme. Bourboulenc gives fresh acidity and citrus aromas and is important in La Clape on the Languedoc coast. Grenache Blanc and Rolle, the local name for Vermentino in Provence, are also widely grown. These grapes are usually blended in southern whites, which combine weight from Grenache Blanc and Roussanne with freshness from Bourboulenc, Clairette and Picpoul. For a list, southern French whites offer weight and freshness at reasonable prices, and they suit Mediterranean cuisine with herbs, olive oil, fish and vegetables. They are good alternatives to more expensive Burgundy or Rhône whites. - Picpoul means lip-stinger - Clairette de Die is a sparkling wine - Bourboulenc important in La Clape - Rolle is Vermentino in Provence - Often blended in southern whites #### Hybrid and resistant grapes Hybrid and disease-resistant grape varieties, often called PIWI after the German term for fungus-resistant grapes, are becoming more visible, particularly in cool, damp climates such as England and Wales. They are crosses that include genetic material from non-vinifera American or Asian vines, giving resistance to mildew and allowing fewer sprays. Older hybrids include Seyval Blanc, long important in English wine, and Baco Noir, common in North America. Newer resistant varieties include Solaris, Regent, Cabernet Cortis, Souvignier Gris and Johanniter, and they are increasingly used in Germany, Switzerland and Scandinavia. In the EU, hybrids have historically been restricted in quality appellation wines, though rules are changing gradually; in the UK, varieties such as Seyval Blanc are permitted in some quality schemes. Quality varies, but some producers make attractive, fresh wines. For a restaurant, PIWI wines can be part of a sustainability story because they reduce chemical treatments. Staff should explain them simply as new grape varieties bred to resist disease, without making exaggerated environmental claims. - PIWI: fungus-resistant varieties - Crossbred with non-vinifera vines - Seyval Blanc long used in England - Newer: Solaris, Regent, Souvignier Gris - Fewer sprays needed #### Bacchus Bacchus is a German cross created in the 1930s from Silvaner, Riesling and Müller-Thurgau, and it has become England’s signature still white grape. It ripens reliably in cool conditions and gives aromatic wines with elderflower, nettle, citrus and hedgerow notes, often compared to Sauvignon Blanc, with which it shares a fresh, grassy character. In England, it is grown widely in Kent, Sussex, Essex and further north and west, with styles ranging from crisp and simple to riper, more textured versions, sometimes with lees ageing or a touch of oak. It is also made into sparkling wine and occasionally blended. Bacchus is useful for UK restaurants with a local or seasonal focus because it gives an English still white at a reasonable price. Guests unfamiliar with English still wine often enjoy being introduced to it, and comparing it to Sauvignon Blanc helps them understand the style. It pairs well with asparagus, goat’s cheese, salads, light fish and herb-led dishes. Expect moderate alcohol and lively acidity; serve it well chilled. - German cross created in the 1930s - England’s signature still white - Elderflower and nettle aromas - Comparable to Sauvignon Blanc - Classic with English asparagus ### New World regions #### Sonoma County Sonoma, west of Napa, is larger, cooler in many parts and more varied, and it is often better value for a list. Its sub-regions differ dramatically. The Russian River Valley, cooled by fog from the Pacific through the Petaluma Gap, is known for Pinot Noir and Chardonnay with ripe fruit and good acidity. The Sonoma Coast and the newer West Sonoma Coast appellation, closer to the ocean and higher, produce leaner, more mineral Pinot Noir and Chardonnay favoured by sommeliers. Dry Creek Valley is warmer and is the heartland of Zinfandel, often from old vines, along with Sauvignon Blanc. Alexander Valley is warm enough for rich Cabernet Sauvignon. Sonoma Valley and Carneros, which straddles Sonoma and Napa at the cool north of San Francisco Bay, also matter; Carneros is a key source of sparkling wine base and Pinot Noir. For a UK list, Sonoma offers Californian quality without Napa’s premium. When selling, mention the fog and coastal influence, which explain why Sonoma Pinot and Chardonnay can be fresher than people expect from California. - Russian River Valley: Pinot Noir and Chardonnay - Dry Creek Valley: Zinfandel - Alexander Valley: Cabernet Sauvignon - Carneros straddles Sonoma and Napa - Fog cools many sub-regions #### California Central Coast California’s Central Coast stretches from San Francisco Bay to Santa Barbara and includes some of the state’s most interesting cool-climate wines. Santa Cruz Mountains, high above the bay, makes long-lived Cabernet and Chardonnay and fine Pinot Noir. Monterey is cooled by winds from its bay and grows large volumes of Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, with the Santa Lucia Highlands a quality enclave. Paso Robles, inland, is warm and known for Rhône varieties and Cabernet Sauvignon, plus Zinfandel. Further south, Santa Barbara County has east-west valleys that funnel ocean air inland; Sta. Rita Hills, at the coastal end, is one of the coolest areas, making sought-after Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, while Santa Ynez Valley and Ballard Canyon are warmer and suit Syrah. Santa Maria Valley also makes excellent Pinot and Chardonnay. For a UK buyer, the Central Coast offers range and often lower prices than famous North Coast names. Rhône-style blends from Paso Robles are good alternatives to Châteauneuf, and Sta. Rita Hills Pinot appeals to fans of riper, fruit-forward Burgundy. - Santa Cruz Mountains: long-lived Cabernet - Paso Robles: Rhône varieties and Cabernet - Sta. Rita Hills: cool-climate Pinot and Chardonnay - East-west valleys funnel ocean air - Often better value than Napa #### Washington State Washington is the second-largest wine-producing state in the US, and most of its vineyards lie east of the Cascade Mountains, in a desert-like rain shadow where irrigation is essential. Long, sunny summer days and cool nights give wines with ripe fruit and good acidity. The Columbia Valley is the vast umbrella appellation, containing sub-regions such as Walla Walla Valley, which crosses into Oregon, Red Mountain, known for powerful Cabernet Sauvignon, Yakima Valley, Horse Heaven Hills and Wahluke Slope. The state is known for Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Syrah, as well as Riesling and Chardonnay; its Rieslings range from dry to sweet and are often excellent value. Because the soils are sandy and cold winters limit the phylloxera louse, many vines are planted on their own roots. Prices are generally lower than for Napa wines of similar quality. For a UK list, Washington Cabernet or Syrah provides a full, ripe New World red with freshness, while Washington Riesling is a good off-dry option for spicy dishes. - Most vineyards east of the Cascades - Columbia Valley is the umbrella appellation - Red Mountain known for Cabernet - Many vines on own roots - Good value compared with Napa #### Finger Lakes and New York New York State’s Finger Lakes, a group of long, deep glacial lakes in the upstate region, has built an international reputation for Riesling. The deep water moderates temperatures, protecting vines from the region’s harsh winters and extending the growing season. Seneca and Cayuga Lakes are the main centres. Rieslings range from bone dry to sweet and have bright acidity and citrus, peach and mineral notes, often compared to Germany and Alsace. Cabernet Franc and Pinot Noir are the main reds, giving light, fresh wines, and Saperavi, a Georgian grape, is also grown by a few producers. Grüner Veltliner and Blaufränkisch, called Lemberger locally, are increasing. Long Island, on the coast near New York City, makes Bordeaux-style reds and Sauvignon Blanc in a maritime climate. The Hudson Valley is one of the oldest wine regions in the US. For a UK list, Finger Lakes Riesling is a niche but interesting choice with good acidity for Asian food, pork and seafood. Volumes exported are small, so specialist importers are the main source. - Glacial lakes moderate winter cold - Seneca and Cayuga are main lakes - Known for dry to sweet Riesling - Cabernet Franc is a key red - Long Island makes Bordeaux-style reds #### Canada: Niagara and Okanagan Canada’s two main wine regions have very different climates. The Niagara Peninsula in Ontario, sheltered between Lake Ontario and the Niagara Escarpment, is cool and humid, producing Riesling, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir and Cabernet Franc, and it is world-famous for icewine made from grapes frozen naturally on the vine, with Vidal, a hybrid, and Riesling the main grapes. Canadian rules require grapes for icewine to be picked and pressed while frozen at a temperature of minus 8 degrees Celsius or colder. Prince Edward County, east of Toronto, is cooler and makes fine Chardonnay and Pinot Noir. British Columbia’s Okanagan Valley, in the west, is a semi-desert with hot summer days and cold nights, producing richer reds such as Merlot, Syrah and Cabernet Franc, plus aromatic whites. Nova Scotia makes a crisp white called Tidal Bay. For a UK list, Canadian icewine is the obvious choice, often in half or 375 ml bottles, though Niagara Chardonnay and Okanagan Syrah offer distinctive alternatives. Prices are relatively high because of small volumes and high production costs. - Niagara: cool, lake-moderated - Icewine grapes frozen on the vine - Icewine picked at minus 8°C or colder - Okanagan: semi-desert, richer reds - Vidal is a key icewine grape #### Central Otago Central Otago, in New Zealand’s South Island, is the world’s most southerly major wine region and has the country’s only truly continental climate, with hot, dry summers, cold winters and large day-night temperature swings. The landscape is dramatic, with mountains and schist soils. Pinot Noir dominates, accounting for most plantings, and gives wines with intense dark cherry and plum fruit, herbal and thyme notes and firm acidity. Sub-regions include Gibbston, the coolest and highest; Bannockburn, warm and early-ripening; Bendigo, warm and producing powerful wines; Cromwell Basin, Wanaka and Alexandra. Riesling, Pinot Gris and Chardonnay are also grown, along with traditional-method sparkling wine. Central Otago Pinot is well known in the UK and usually costs more than Marlborough Pinot because yields are lower and land is costly. For a list, it provides a richer, more fruit-forward alternative to Burgundy, and its intense colour and fruit appeal to guests who find Burgundy too light. Pair it with lamb, venison, duck and mushroom dishes. Frost is a serious risk and can reduce yields. - World’s most southerly major wine region - Continental climate - Pinot Noir dominates plantings - Sub-regions: Gibbston, Bannockburn, Bendigo - Richer than most Burgundy #### Hawke’s Bay and Martinborough New Zealand is not only Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc. Hawke’s Bay, on the east coast of the North Island, is the country’s second-largest region and its main source of red wines from Bordeaux varieties and Syrah. The Gimblett Gravels, a sub-region on an old riverbed of free-draining stony soils, is particularly well known for structured Merlot, Cabernet and Syrah, often in a peppery, elegant, Rhône-like style. Hawke’s Bay also makes fine Chardonnay. Martinborough, at the southern tip of the North Island in the Wairarapa, is small but highly regarded for Pinot Noir with savoury, earthy depth; it has a cool, windy climate and terraces of free-draining soils. Gisborne is known for Chardonnay, Nelson for aromatic whites and Pinot, North Canterbury and Waipara for Riesling and Pinot Noir, and Auckland’s Waiheke Island for Bordeaux blends and Syrah. For a list, Gimblett Gravels Syrah is a great alternative to northern Rhône, and Martinborough Pinot appeals to Burgundy lovers. Explaining these regions helps guests see beyond Marlborough. - Hawke’s Bay: Bordeaux varieties and Syrah - Gimblett Gravels: old riverbed soils - Martinborough: savoury Pinot Noir - Waipara: Riesling and Pinot - Waiheke Island: Bordeaux blends #### McLaren Vale and Clare and Eden Valleys South Australia has many regions beyond the Barossa. McLaren Vale, south of Adelaide near the Gulf St Vincent, has a Mediterranean climate and is known for Shiraz, Grenache and Cabernet, with old-vine Grenache now its most fashionable wine, as well as Italian varieties such as Fiano and Nero d’Avola. Its wines are typically rich, with chocolate and spice. The Clare Valley, north of Adelaide, is high and has cool nights; despite its warm days, it is famous for dry Riesling with lime, citrus and toast notes that age into complex wines. The Eden Valley, next to the Barossa but higher and cooler, also makes fine, steely Riesling and elegant Shiraz. The Adelaide Hills, cooler still, is known for Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay and Pinot Noir. Langhorne Creek supplies soft reds. For a UK list, Clare or Eden Riesling is an excellent, inexpensive dry white for spicy food and seafood, and McLaren Vale Grenache is a modern alternative to heavy Shiraz. Australian Riesling is almost always bottled under screwcap. - McLaren Vale: Shiraz and Grenache - Clare and Eden Valleys: dry Riesling - Adelaide Hills: cool-climate whites and Pinot - Australian Riesling usually under screwcap - Old-vine Grenache now fashionable #### Coonawarra Coonawarra, in the far south-east of South Australia, is one of the world’s best-known examples of a soil type defining a wine region. Its famous terra rossa, a strip of red, iron-rich soil over limestone, roughly 15 kilometres long and under two kilometres wide, is ideal for Cabernet Sauvignon. The climate is cool for Australia, moderated by the Southern Ocean, and the wines are noted for blackcurrant, mint and eucalyptus aromas, firm structure and good ageing potential. The region’s boundaries were the subject of long legal disputes because of the value of the name. Shiraz and Merlot are also grown, and the neighbouring regions of Padthaway and Wrattonbully also produce good Cabernet. Limestone Coast is the umbrella zone. For a list, Coonawarra Cabernet is a well-priced classic that appeals to claret drinkers who want riper fruit, and it pairs well with lamb, especially when roasted with rosemary, beef and hard cheese. Mentioning the terra rossa soil helps tell the story. Older vintages can be excellent value if available from merchants. - Terra rossa red soil over limestone - Strip about 15 km long - Famous for Cabernet Sauvignon - Mint and eucalyptus notes - Boundaries were legally disputed #### Hunter Valley The Hunter Valley, north of Sydney in New South Wales, is one of Australia’s oldest wine regions and one of its most unusual. It is hot and humid, with rain often arriving near harvest, which makes grape growing challenging. Its most famous wine is Hunter Valley Semillon, picked early at low ripeness to give wines of around 10 to 11 per cent alcohol, made without oak, which are lean, citrusy and almost neutral when young but transform with age into wines of honey, toast and lanolin richness, despite never seeing a barrel. Aged Hunter Semillon is one of Australia’s great wine styles and offers remarkable value. The region also makes medium-bodied, earthy Shiraz, historically known as Hunter River Burgundy, which is lighter than South Australian Shiraz. For a list, aged Hunter Semillon is a sommelier’s secret weapon, pairing well with seafood and lighter dishes and offering complexity at modest prices. When serving a young bottle, warn guests that the wine is designed to age, or choose a release with some bottle age already. - Hot, humid, rain near harvest - Semillon picked early, low alcohol - Ages to toast and honey without oak - Medium-bodied, earthy Shiraz - Aged Semillon offers great value #### Yarra Valley and Victoria Victoria, in south-east Australia, has a cooler, more varied climate than South Australia and makes many of the country’s most elegant wines. The Yarra Valley, east of Melbourne, is known for Chardonnay and Pinot Noir in a fine, restrained style, as well as Cabernet, Syrah and sparkling wine. The Mornington Peninsula, south of Melbourne and surrounded by sea, is a maritime region for Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. Geelong and Macedon Ranges are cool and make fine Pinot, Chardonnay and sparkling wine. Further inland, Heathcote is famous for rich Shiraz grown on ancient red Cambrian soils. Rutherglen, in the north-east, is home to fortified Muscat and Topaque, a style from Muscadelle formerly called Tokay; these are rich, sweet, long-aged wines classified as Rutherglen, Classic, Grand and Rare. Beechworth and the Grampians are also notable. For a UK list, Yarra and Mornington Chardonnay are exciting alternatives to Burgundy, and Rutherglen Muscat is an excellent, affordable dessert wine that keeps for weeks once opened. - Yarra Valley: fine Chardonnay and Pinot - Mornington Peninsula: maritime Pinot - Heathcote: rich Shiraz - Rutherglen: fortified Muscat and Topaque - Topaque was formerly called Tokay #### Tasmania Tasmania, the island state south of mainland Australia, is the country’s coolest wine region and one of its most exciting. Its climate is closer to that of Champagne or Burgundy than to the rest of Australia, which makes it ideal for sparkling wine, Chardonnay and Pinot Noir. Many mainland producers have bought Tasmanian fruit or vineyards for their sparkling wines, and Tasmanian traditional-method sparkling wines are among the best in the New World, with fine acidity and complex lees character. Still Pinot Noir is fresh, aromatic and elegant, and Chardonnay is precise. Riesling and aromatic whites also thrive. Main areas include the Tamar Valley, Pipers River, the Coal River Valley, the Derwent Valley and the East Coast. Production is small, so Tasmanian wines are relatively expensive and not widely exported to the UK. For a list, Tasmanian sparkling wine is an interesting alternative to Champagne and a good talking point for guests interested in climate and terroir. Expect high acidity and moderate alcohol, with the purity of cool-climate fruit. - Australia’s coolest wine region - Excellent traditional-method sparkling - Fresh, aromatic Pinot Noir - Areas: Tamar Valley, Coal River, East Coast - Small production, higher prices #### Swartland Swartland, north of Cape Town in South Africa, was once a source of bulk wine and wheat, but since the early 2000s it has become the centre of a revolution in South African wine. A group of independent winemakers began making natural-leaning wines from old, dry-farmed bush vines of Chenin Blanc, Grenache, Syrah, Cinsault and other grapes, often on granite, shale and schist soils. The region is hot and dry, but the old vines and minimal intervention produce wines with freshness and texture. The Swartland Independent Producers association set rules for its members on natural winemaking and avoiding additions. The style emphasises white blends based on Chenin Blanc, and Rhône-inspired reds with fresh fruit and spice. The Old Vine Project in South Africa certifies vineyards over 35 years old with a seal on the bottle, and many Swartland wines carry it. For a UK list, Swartland wines offer exciting, characterful bottles at prices well below their equivalents from France, and they appeal to adventurous guests. Chenin Blanc from old vines is a particular strength. - Old, dry-farmed bush vines - Chenin Blanc and Rhône varieties - Independent producer movement since early 2000s - Old Vine Project seal for vines over 35 years - Value compared with French equivalents #### South Africa’s cool coast South Africa’s cooler, coastal regions are making world-class Chardonnay, Pinot Noir and Sauvignon Blanc. Hemel-en-Aarde, near the seaside town of Hermanus, is divided into three wards, Hemel-en-Aarde Valley, Upper Hemel-en-Aarde Valley and Hemel-en-Aarde Ridge, and makes Burgundian-style Chardonnay and Pinot Noir cooled by Atlantic breezes. Elgin, in the mountains east of Cape Town, was once apple country and is now known for crisp Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay and Pinot Noir. Walker Bay surrounds Hemel-en-Aarde. Elim, near Cape Agulhas, the southernmost tip of Africa, is very windy and cool and makes intensely flavoured Sauvignon Blanc. Constantia, close to Cape Town, is historic and known for Sauvignon Blanc and its revived sweet wine, Vin de Constance. Cape South Coast is the umbrella region. For a UK list, Hemel-en-Aarde Chardonnay is a strong alternative to Burgundy at a lower price, and Elgin Sauvignon Blanc offers a style between Sancerre and Marlborough. These regions show that South Africa is not just a source of value wine. - Hemel-en-Aarde: Chardonnay and Pinot Noir - Elgin was once apple country - Elim is near Cape Agulhas - Constantia makes Vin de Constance - Cape South Coast is the umbrella region #### Argentina beyond Mendoza basics Mendoza is covered as a region elsewhere; this entry covers the sub-regions and other provinces. Within Mendoza, the Uco Valley, at high altitude near the Andes, has become the source of the most fashionable wines, with sub-regions such as Tupungato, Tunuyán and San Carlos and newer geographical indications like Gualtallary, Los Chacayes and Paraje Altamira; the altitude gives fresher, more structured Malbec. Luján de Cuyo, closer to the city, is the traditional heartland with old vines. In the north, Salta and its Calchaquí Valleys, including Cafayate, have some of the highest vineyards in the world, sometimes above 2,000 metres; they are famous for Torrontés, an aromatic white with floral, grapey notes, and for powerful reds. San Juan, north of Mendoza, is warmer. In the south, Patagonia, including Neuquén and Río Negro, makes cooler-climate Pinot Noir, Malbec and Merlot. For a list, Uco Valley Malbec offers a fresher alternative to standard Mendoza Malbec, and Salta Torrontés is a fine aromatic white for spicy food. Altitude is the theme to explain. - Uco Valley: high-altitude Malbec - Paraje Altamira and Gualtallary are GIs - Salta has vineyards above 2,000 metres - Torrontés is the aromatic white - Patagonia makes cooler-climate wines #### Chile beyond the Central Valley Chile’s Central Valley is covered elsewhere; this entry focuses on the cooler and more distinctive regions. Casablanca and San Antonio, including Leyda, near the Pacific coast, are cooled by the Humboldt Current and morning fog, and make crisp Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay and Pinot Noir. Limarí and Elqui, further north, are cool and coastal, with limestone in Limarí giving mineral Chardonnay. In the south, Maule has old dry-farmed Carignan and País vines, and Itata and Bío Bío have old Cinsault, Muscat and País vines and a cooler, wetter climate; these regions have attracted a revival of artisanal winemaking. Chile has also adopted designations for coastal (Costa), intermediate (Entre Cordilleras) and mountain (Andes) areas to indicate climate from west to east. País, Chile’s historic grape brought by Spanish missionaries, makes light, rustic reds. For a list, Chilean coastal Sauvignon Blanc is a good value alternative to Marlborough, and old-vine Carignan or Cinsault from the south offers character and stories at low prices. - Casablanca and Leyda: coastal, cool - Limarí: limestone Chardonnay - Maule and Itata: old dry-farmed vines - Costa, Entre Cordilleras, Andes designations - País is Chile’s historic grape #### Uruguay and Brazil Uruguay is South America’s fourth-largest wine producer and has made Tannat its signature grape. Introduced by Basque immigrants in the 19th century, Tannat grows here in a humid, maritime climate influenced by the Atlantic and the Río de la Plata, which gives wines that are softer and fresher than Madiran’s, though still tannic. Canelones, near Montevideo, is the main region, while Maldonado, near the Atlantic coast, has newer vineyards producing Albariño and fresh reds. Uruguayan Tannat pairs naturally with the country’s beloved grilled beef, asado. Brazil is better known for sparkling wine: Serra Gaúcha, in the southern state of Rio Grande do Sul, has a cool, humid climate and produces traditional-method and tank-method sparkling wines, as well as Moscato sparkling wines. Vale dos Vinhedos was Brazil’s first geographical indication. Brazil also has tropical vineyards in the São Francisco valley that can produce more than one harvest a year. For a UK list, Uruguayan Tannat is an excellent match for steak and an interesting alternative to Malbec for steakhouses. - Tannat is Uruguay’s signature grape - Introduced by Basque immigrants - Canelones is the main region - Brazil’s Serra Gaúcha makes sparkling - Tannat pairs with asado #### Japan’s Koshu Japan has a small but growing wine industry, and its most distinctive grape is Koshu, a pink-skinned variety grown for centuries in Yamanashi Prefecture near Mount Fuji. DNA analysis has shown that Koshu is mostly vinifera with some wild vine ancestry, which helps explain its hardiness in Japan’s wet climate. Koshu wines are delicate, low in alcohol, around 11 to 12 per cent, and subtle, with citrus, white peach, and a slightly bitter, saline finish. Styles include crisp, unoaked versions, lees-aged sur lie wines, sparkling wines and orange wines made with skin contact. Japanese wine labelling rules introduced in 2018 require that wines labelled Japan Wine be made from grapes grown in Japan. Yamanashi, Nagano and Hokkaido are the main regions, with Hokkaido, in the cool north, making Pinot Noir, Chardonnay and Kerner. Muscat Bailey A is a local hybrid red. For a UK restaurant, Koshu is a natural pairing for sushi, sashimi, tempura and delicate Japanese food, and it makes a good alternative to sake on Asian menus. Its subtlety means it should not be served too cold. - Koshu: pink-skinned grape from Yamanashi - Low alcohol, delicate style - Japan Wine label rules from 2018 - Hokkaido grows cool-climate varieties - Pairs with sushi and tempura #### Great Southern and Western Australia beyond Margaret River Margaret River is covered elsewhere; Western Australia’s other quality region, Great Southern, deserves attention. It is a large, cool region in the state’s south-west corner, influenced by the Southern Ocean, and it contains five sub-regions: Albany, Denmark, Frankland River, Mount Barker and Porongurup. Frankland River, inland and drier, is known for structured Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon and for Riesling. Mount Barker and Porongurup, the latter on ancient granite hills, produce some of Australia’s finest dry Riesling, delicate and floral with fine acidity, as well as elegant Pinot Noir and Shiraz. Denmark and Albany, near the coast, are cooler still and suit Chardonnay, Pinot Noir and sparkling wine. Because the region is remote and production is modest, its wines are less familiar in the UK than those of South Australia, but they often offer excellent value for their quality. For a list, Porongurup or Mount Barker Riesling is an alternative to Clare and Eden, and Frankland River Shiraz offers a peppery, medium-bodied style closer to the northern Rhône than to the Barossa. Pair the Rieslings with seafood and Asian dishes, and the Shiraz with lamb and game. - Five sub-regions including Frankland River and Porongurup - Cooled by the Southern Ocean - Fine dry Riesling from granite hills - Peppery, medium-bodied Shiraz - Less known in the UK, often good value ### Labels and styles #### Reading a European label European labels usually tell you where a wine comes from rather than what grape it is, and staff need to translate. The core information is the producer, the appellation or protected designation, the vintage, the alcohol percentage and the volume. Since the EU’s reform, quality wines carry Protected Designation of Origin, PDO, known as AOP in France, DOP in Italy and Spain, and g.U. in Germany; traditional terms such as AOC, DOC, DOCG and DOCa remain in use. Protected Geographical Indication, PGI, known as IGP in France and IGT in Italy, covers broader regional wines with more flexible rules. Wines without geographic indication can show a grape and vintage under certain rules. Useful extra words include château or domaine (estate), mis en bouteille au domaine (estate-bottled), négociant (merchant who buys grapes or wine), cuvée (blend or selection), vieilles vignes (old vines, not legally defined in France) and reserva or riserva, which have legal meanings in Spain and Italy but not in many other countries. When a guest asks what grape is in a French wine, staff should know the answer from the appellation. - PDO equals AOP, DOP, g.U. - PGI equals IGP, IGT - Vieilles vignes has no legal definition in France - Mis en bouteille au domaine means estate-bottled - Riserva has legal meaning in Italy #### Reading a New World label New World labels usually lead with the producer and grape variety, which makes them easier for guests. However, there are rules to know. In the US, a varietal label requires at least 75 per cent of that grape, while in Australia, New Zealand, Chile and South Africa, and under EU rules, it is generally 85 per cent; vintage and region claims have similar thresholds. American Viticultural Areas, AVAs, define regions such as Napa Valley and Willamette Valley; Australia uses Geographical Indications; South Africa uses Wine of Origin with regions, districts and wards; New Zealand registers geographical indications. Terms such as Reserve, Old Vine and Estate generally have no legal definition in most New World countries, so they are marketing language, though some regions have voluntary schemes, such as South Africa’s Old Vine Project or Barossa’s Old Vine Charter. Back labels often include tasting notes, food suggestions and sometimes technical data. For staff, the key is not to assume Reserve means better and to check the producer’s actual range. When comparing wines, the region tells you more about style than the brand. - US varietal labelling: 75% minimum - EU and many others: 85% - AVAs define American regions - Reserve usually has no legal meaning - Barossa Old Vine Charter is voluntary #### UK wine labelling basics Wines sold in the UK must carry specific information, and staff who understand it can answer guests’ questions. Mandatory particulars include the product category, such as wine or quality sparkling wine; the alcohol by volume; the nominal volume; the country of origin; allergen information, notably sulphites and, where used and detectable, milk or egg fining agents; a lot number; and the name and address of the importer or bottler. Since the UK left the EU, labels for the British market must show a UK or EU importer address, with transition arrangements having been phased in. English and Welsh wines may carry PDO or PGI designations such as English Wine PDO or Welsh Wine PDO, and Sussex has its own PDO for sparkling wine. English Wine should not be confused with British wine, a legal term for wine made in Britain from imported grape concentrate or juice, which is a different and cheaper product. Calorie and ingredient listings are not currently mandatory on UK wine labels, though some producers include them voluntarily. Responsible drinking messaging, such as the Chief Medical Officers’ low-risk guidelines, is common but voluntary. - Mandatory: ABV, volume, origin, allergens - Sulphites must be declared - Sussex has its own sparkling PDO - British wine is made from imported concentrate - Calories not currently mandatory #### Vintage and non-vintage A vintage on a label means the grapes were harvested in that year, though rules usually allow a small percentage from other years, typically up to 15 per cent under EU rules. Non-vintage wines blend several harvests to create a consistent house style, which is standard in Champagne and other sparkling wines, sherry and many inexpensive wines. Champagne houses keep reserve wines from previous years to blend; a vintage Champagne is only made in good years and must spend longer on its lees. Some producers label their non-vintage with the base year or a disgorgement date, which is helpful. For still wines, vintage matters most in marginal climates such as Burgundy, Bordeaux, Germany and England, where weather varies widely. In warmer, more consistent regions, vintage differences are smaller but still exist. For restaurants, changing vintage without updating the list is a common error and can lead to disputes if a guest receives a different year. Train staff to check the vintage when presenting the bottle and update the list or tell the guest before opening. Vintage charts are guides, not guarantees. - Vintage means harvest year - EU rules allow up to 15% from other years - Non-vintage blends several harvests - Vintage matters most in marginal climates - Always update the list when vintage changes #### Rosé production styles Rosé is covered as a category elsewhere; this entry explains how it is made. The most common method is direct pressing, where red grapes are pressed gently and quickly, so only a little colour leaches from the skins; this gives the pale, delicate style associated with Provence. Short maceration leaves the juice in contact with skins for a few hours to a couple of days before pressing, giving deeper colour and more flavour, as in Tavel or many Spanish rosados. The saignée method, meaning bleeding, draws off some pink juice from a red wine fermentation to concentrate the red; the rosé is a by-product and tends to be fuller and deeper. Blending red and white wine is generally not allowed for still rosé in the EU, but it is permitted for rosé Champagne and some other sparkling wines. Colour does not indicate sweetness or quality: pale is fashionable, but deeper rosés can be excellent food wines. For a list, offer a range from pale and crisp to fuller and more structured, and describe the style rather than relying on colour. - Direct pressing gives pale rosé - Short maceration gives deeper colour - Saignée bleeds juice from red fermentation - Blending red and white allowed for rosé Champagne - Colour does not equal quality #### Sparkling rosé Sparkling rosé is popular for celebrations and commands a premium. In Champagne, rosé can be made either by blending a small amount of still red wine, usually Pinot Noir from villages such as Bouzy, into the white base wine before the second fermentation, which is the most common method and gives control over colour, or by the saignée or maceration method, which gives deeper colour and more red-fruit flavour. Other traditional-method sparkling wines, including English sparkling rosé, Crémant rosé, Cava rosado and Franciacorta rosé, follow similar principles. Prosecco Rosé, introduced in 2020, must be a vintage wine and include a proportion of Pinot Noir. Rosé Champagne is typically more expensive than the equivalent non-vintage white because it is more difficult to make consistently. Styles range from pale and delicate to deep and vinous. For service, sparkling rosé pairs with red fruit desserts, salmon, charcuterie, light game and Asian dishes, and it is a strong choice for celebrations. On a list, include at least one sparkling rosé by the bottle and consider offering it by the glass for occasions like Valentine’s Day. - Champagne rosé usually blends in red wine - Saignée gives deeper colour - Prosecco Rosé must be vintage - Typically priced above white equivalents - Strong seller for celebrations #### Old vines Old vines, vieilles vignes, viñas viejas or alte Reben, appear frequently on labels, and staff need to know what the term means and does not mean. As vines age, they generally produce fewer, smaller bunches, and their deep roots can give more consistent quality in drought or heat, so many winemakers believe old vines give more concentrated, complex wines. However, there is no universal legal definition: in France, vieilles vignes is not regulated, and a producer can use it for vines of 30 or 80 years. Some regions and organisations set their own rules. The Barossa Old Vine Charter classifies vines as Old (35+ years), Survivor (70+), Centenarian (100+) and Ancestor (125+). South Africa’s Old Vine Project certifies vines 35 years and older with a planting date seal. Some of the world’s oldest productive vineyards are in the Barossa, Chile, California and Spain. For the floor, old vines are a good story but should not be oversold as a guarantee of quality; describe the wine and the producer’s approach, using old vines as a supporting detail. - No universal legal definition - Old vines usually give lower yields - Barossa Old Vine Charter: 35, 70, 100, 125 years - South Africa certifies vines 35+ - Story, not guarantee #### Alcohol levels and ABV Alcohol by volume is printed on every label, and in the UK, as in the EU, a tolerance of 0.5 per cent either way is allowed for still wine, so a wine labelled 13.5 per cent could be 13 or 14 per cent. Alcohol affects body, perceived sweetness and warmth, and wines above about 14.5 per cent can taste hot, especially if served too warm. Warmer climates, riper picking and climate change have raised average alcohol levels over recent decades, though many producers now pick earlier for freshness. Since August 2023, UK alcohol duty has been charged according to alcohol strength for all products, so higher-strength wines generally pay more duty per bottle, and this affects pricing. Lower-alcohol wines, such as Mosel Kabinett at around 8 per cent or Moscato d’Asti at around 5 per cent, are useful for guests who want to drink less. For the floor, staff should know the ABV of wines on the list and be able to suggest lower-alcohol options. Responsible service requires attention to how much guests are drinking, especially with high-alcohol wines served in large measures. - Tolerance of 0.5% either way - Duty based on strength since August 2023 - High-alcohol wines can taste hot - Moscato d’Asti around 5% - Know ABVs for responsible service #### Vegan and vegetarian wine Many guests now ask whether a wine is vegan, and the question is about fining agents and processing aids rather than the grapes themselves. Traditional fining agents include animal products such as egg white (albumen), milk protein (casein), fish bladder (isinglass) and gelatine. Vegan wines are fined with non-animal products such as bentonite clay, pea protein, potato protein or activated charcoal, or are not fined at all. Vegetarian wines may use egg or milk but not gelatine or isinglass. Because fining agents are processing aids that are removed, they do not usually need to appear on the ingredients, though egg and milk allergens may need to be declared if detectable. Some producers certify their wines with the Vegan Society or other schemes. In practice, many wines are vegan, but you cannot assume so. For restaurants, the best approach is to ask suppliers for the vegan status of every wine and mark it on the list or in staff notes. Getting this wrong can upset guests, so the information should be confirmed in writing. - Concern is fining agents, not grapes - Animal fining: egg, casein, isinglass, gelatine - Vegan fining: bentonite, pea protein - Not always declared on labels - Confirm vegan status with suppliers in writing #### Lighter and lower-alcohol wines Alongside alcohol-free wine, lighter wines with naturally lower alcohol are increasingly in demand. Some styles are naturally low: German Riesling Kabinett, often 7 to 10 per cent when it has some sweetness; Moscato d’Asti, about 5 per cent; Vinho Verde, around 9 to 11.5 per cent; Muscadet; Txakoli; Hunter Valley Semillon; and Lambrusco. Producers can also pick earlier to retain acidity and reduce sugar, which lowers alcohol. Some brands use technology such as spinning cone or reverse osmosis to reduce alcohol partially, creating lower-alcohol wines that may be labelled with terms like lower alcohol in the UK. Under UK guidance, terms such as low alcohol (up to 1.2 per cent) and alcohol-free (up to 0.05 per cent) have specific meanings, and de-alcoholised has its own definition. For the floor, offering lighter wines lets guests drink with a meal while consuming less alcohol, and staff can suggest smaller measures, such as 125 ml glasses. Listing ABV next to wines helps guests choose, and it is good practice for responsible service. - Naturally low: Kabinett, Moscato d’Asti, Vinho Verde - Early picking lowers alcohol - Low alcohol means up to 1.2% in UK guidance - Alcohol-free means up to 0.05% - List ABVs to help guests choose #### Lambrusco Lambrusco, from Emilia-Romagna and Lombardy in northern Italy, is a sparkling red wine that suffered from a reputation for cheap, sweet bottles exported in large volumes decades ago. Good Lambrusco is a different thing: dry or off-dry, frothy, with vivid red fruit, bitter cherry and violet notes and refreshing acidity, made to cut through the rich food of Emilia, such as salumi, mortadella, Parmigiano Reggiano and fried gnocco. Lambrusco is a family of grapes rather than one variety. Lambrusco di Sorbara is pale, fragrant and high in acidity; Lambrusco Grasparossa di Castelvetro is darker and more tannic; Lambrusco Salamino di Santa Croce is in between. Most Lambrusco is made by the tank method, though some producers use the traditional or ancestral method. Look for secco on the label for dry styles, with amabile or dolce indicating sweeter ones. For a list, dry Lambrusco is a great addition for Italian restaurants, pizza and charcuterie. It should be served chilled, and its moderate alcohol and low price make it easy to sell once guests try it. - Sparkling red from Emilia-Romagna - Family of grapes, not one variety - Sorbara: pale and fragrant - Grasparossa: darker and more tannic - Secco means dry #### Moscato d’Asti and Asti Moscato d’Asti and Asti come from Piedmont and are made from Moscato Bianco, a high-quality form of Muscat. Both are sweet and low in alcohol, made by stopping fermentation, usually by chilling, which keeps natural grape sugar. Moscato d’Asti is lightly sparkling, frizzante, with around 5 to 5.5 per cent alcohol, and is sealed with a normal cork. Asti, formerly Asti Spumante, is fully sparkling, with slightly higher alcohol, and is sealed with a mushroom cork and wire cage. Both have intense grapey, floral, peach and orange blossom aromas. They are best drunk young and fresh. Moscato d’Asti is a fine choice for fruit-based desserts, such as peach tarts, berry pavlovas and fruit salads, and it is light enough to work with brunch or as an aperitif for guests who like sweeter drinks. It is a poor match for chocolate, which overwhelms it. Because of its low alcohol, Moscato d’Asti is useful for guests who want something light. Store it cold and check the vintage, since freshness fades after a year or two. - Grape: Moscato Bianco - Moscato d’Asti: frizzante, about 5% - Asti: fully sparkling - Best drunk young - Pairs with fruit desserts ### Service technique #### Presenting the bottle Presenting the bottle is the first step in wine service and confirms that the guest is getting what they ordered. Hold the bottle from below or by the body with the label facing the host, and state the producer, the wine name and the vintage clearly. Do this before opening, so that any mistake, such as a different vintage or a different cuvée, can be corrected without opening a bottle that the guest does not want. If the vintage on the list has changed, say so and offer to bring an alternative or confirm they are happy. For white and sparkling wines, the bottle should have been chilled in advance, and you can mention the temperature. Present the bottle to the person who ordered, which is not always the person at the head of the table. In busy restaurants, presentation can be brief, but it should never be skipped. If you are using a Coravin for a by-the-glass serve from a premium bottle, show the bottle before pouring so the guest knows what they are getting. Presenting confidently sets the tone for the rest of the service. - Present before opening - State producer, wine and vintage - Correct mistakes before opening - Present to the person who ordered - Never skip, even when busy #### Opening still wine at the table Opening a bottle of still wine at the table should be smooth and quiet. Use a waiter’s friend corkscrew with a sharp foil cutter and a two-step lever. Cut the foil below the lip of the bottle, so wine does not touch the foil when poured, and remove the top of the capsule neatly. Wipe the top of the bottle and the cork with a clean napkin. Insert the screw slightly off-centre so that the spiral, rather than the tip, follows the centre of the cork, and turn it until one turn remains visible, avoiding piercing the bottom of the cork. Use the first step of the lever to raise the cork halfway, then the second step to lift it most of the way, finishing by easing it out gently by hand to avoid a pop. Check the cork for signs of leakage or damage, smell it if you wish, and place it on a side plate near the host if that is house practice. Wipe the bottle neck again before pouring. The whole process should take less than a minute and be done holding the bottle without spinning it on the table. - Use a two-step waiter’s friend - Cut the foil below the lip - Leave one turn of the screw visible - Ease the cork out quietly - Wipe the neck before pouring #### Opening sparkling wine safely Opening sparkling wine requires care, because the pressure inside a bottle of Champagne is around five to six atmospheres, and a flying cork can cause serious eye injuries. The bottle should be properly chilled, which reduces the pressure and prevents gushing. Remove the foil, keeping the bottle pointed away from guests and yourself at about 45 degrees. Place your thumb over the cork and cage, and loosen the wire cage with about six half-turns; many professionals keep the cage on the cork for a better grip. From the moment the cage is loosened, keep your thumb or hand on the cork at all times. Hold the cork and cage firmly with one hand and turn the bottle, not the cork, with the other, holding it at its base. Allow the pressure to push the cork out gently, controlling it so that it releases with a quiet sigh rather than a pop. Pour slowly into the glass in two stages to avoid overflowing, filling first to about one-third, letting the mousse settle, then topping up. Never shake or sabre a bottle without training and suitable conditions. - Pressure about 5 to 6 atmospheres - Chill properly first - Keep a hand on the cork once the cage is loosened - Turn the bottle, not the cork - Aim for a sigh, not a pop #### Broken and crumbling corks Corks break or crumble, especially in old bottles or bottles that have been stored upright, and handling it calmly matters. If the cork breaks partway, reinsert the screw at an angle into the remaining cork and gently extract it; using a two-prong cork puller, known as an Ah-So or butler’s thief, is often better for old, fragile corks because the prongs slide between the cork and the glass. If the cork falls into the bottle, it is not a disaster: decant the wine through a clean funnel with a fine strainer, or into a decanter, and serve from there. If crumbs of cork fall into the wine, decant through a strainer. Explain briefly and calmly to the guest, apologise for the delay and do not make a show of it. Keep spare tools, such as a two-prong puller, a funnel and a decanting strainer, in the service station. With old wines, it is often best to open them away from the table, in good light, and present them decanted. Never push a crumbling cork into a bottle of a valuable wine without asking, as some guests may prefer to watch the decanting process. - Use a two-prong puller for old corks - Re-angle the screw for a broken cork - Decant through a strainer if crumbs fall in - Explain calmly and briefly - Open old wines away from the table #### Pouring and the host’s taste After opening, pour a small taste for the host, about 25 to 30 ml, so they can check the wine is sound. The purpose is to check for faults, such as cork taint, oxidation or heat damage, not to approve whether they like the wine. Most guests know this, but some do not, and staff should be ready to handle a rejection politely. Once the host approves, serve guests clockwise, traditionally serving women and older guests first in formal settings, with the host served last; many modern restaurants simply serve clockwise starting from the host’s right. Pour with the label facing the guest, keep the bottle from touching the glass and twist slightly at the end of the pour to prevent drips, wiping the neck with a napkin as needed. For still wines, fill glasses to about a third, which allows swirling and leaves enough for the whole table. A standard 750 ml bottle gives around six 125 ml glasses, so judge pours so that everyone gets a fair share. Top up attentively but not aggressively; pushing the bottle to make guests order another is a poor practice. - Pour a taste of about 25 to 30 ml - The taste checks for faults, not preference - Pour clockwise, host last - Fill glasses to about a third - Do not over-pour to sell more bottles #### Handling a rejected bottle When a guest rejects a bottle, the response separates good service from bad. If the wine is faulty, such as corked, oxidised or heat-damaged, apologise, remove it, bring a fresh bottle or an alternative, and record the fault for credit from the supplier, who will normally replace faulty stock if you return it with the cork. If the wine is sound but the guest does not like it, the policy depends on the restaurant, but generous handling usually pays: a disappointed guest who is helped to find another wine is likely to return. Taste the wine yourself or ask the sommelier to confirm the condition; never argue in front of the table. If the wine is sound and you replace it, the rejected bottle can often be sold by the glass or used as a staff tasting, minimising the cost. If a guest selected a wine based on staff advice and dislikes it, replacing it is usually the right call. Record all rejections to identify patterns, such as one supplier or vintage causing problems. Train staff to recognise common faults with confidence, so that they do not refuse legitimate complaints or accept invalid ones blindly. - Faulty wine: replace and claim supplier credit - Return faulty bottles with the cork - Never argue at the table - Sound but disliked wine can go by the glass - Record rejections to spot patterns #### Glassware choices The right glass improves a wine, but restaurants must balance quality with cost, breakage and storage. The essentials are a thin rim, a bowl that narrows at the top to concentrate aromas, and a stem long enough to hold without warming the wine. Many restaurants now use a single universal glass for all still wines, which simplifies stock and washing; it is a sensible choice for most venues. Fine-dining restaurants may offer specific glasses: larger, wide bowls for Burgundy and Pinot Noir, tall bowls for Bordeaux and Cabernet, and smaller bowls for white wines. For sparkling wine, a tulip-shaped glass or a white wine glass is better than a narrow flute because it lets the aromas develop, though flutes keep bubbles longer and are still popular. Coupe glasses look retro but lose bubbles quickly. Fortified wines are best served in small glasses, though a white wine glass is good for sherry. Glasses must be polished and free of detergent residue, which can kill bubbles and affect aroma. Machine-made crystal glasses are durable, and breakage rates should be budgeted. - Thin rim and tapering bowl - Universal glass suits most venues - Tulip or white wine glass beats a flute - Detergent residue kills bubbles - Budget for breakage #### Ice buckets and chilling Keeping wine at the right temperature through a meal is part of service. White, rosé and sparkling wines should be served from a fridge or ice bucket. An ice bucket works best when filled with a mixture of ice and water, not just ice, because the water contacts the bottle and chills it far faster; a bottle can be chilled in roughly 15 to 20 minutes in iced water, compared with hours in a fridge. Adding salt lowers the temperature further and speeds chilling. However, keeping a fine white wine in an ice bucket throughout the meal can over-chill it, muting its flavours; sometimes it is better to place it on the table or in a cooler sleeve. Ask the guest whether they prefer it in the bucket. Red wines should not usually be put in an ice bucket, though light reds may benefit from a brief chill. Keep a clean napkin around the bucket or bottle to absorb drips. In busy service, make sure ice buckets are checked and topped up, and that they do not take up too much table space. A wine stand can be placed beside the table instead. - Ice and water chills faster than ice alone - About 15 to 20 minutes in iced water - Salt speeds chilling - Fine whites can be over-chilled - Ask the guest their preference #### Serving older wines and sediment Older red wines and vintage port often throw a sediment, a deposit of tannins and colour compounds that forms as the wine ages. Serving them well requires preparation. Ideally, stand the bottle upright for a day or more before service so the sediment settles at the bottom. If that is not possible, carry the bottle horizontally in a cradle or basket, keeping it in the same position it was stored in, and decant carefully. To decant, open the bottle gently, then pour slowly and steadily into a decanter with a light source, such as a candle or torch, beneath the neck of the bottle so you can see the sediment moving towards the neck; stop pouring when it reaches the shoulder. Older wines can be fragile, and decanting too early can cause them to lose aroma, so many sommeliers decant old wines just before serving. Present the bottle alongside the decanter so the guest can see the label. Pouring directly from a cradle without decanting is also possible but more difficult. Use a fine strainer if necessary, and keep the dregs out of the glass. - Stand bottles upright before service - Use a light under the bottle neck when decanting - Stop pouring when sediment reaches the shoulder - Decant old wines just before serving - Present the bottle with the decanter #### Large formats Large-format bottles add theatre and can be good business for parties. The magnum, 1.5 litres, equals two standard bottles; the Jeroboam is 3 litres (though in Bordeaux it historically referred to a different size); the Rehoboam 4.5 litres, used for Champagne; the Methuselah or Imperial 6 litres; the Salmanazar 9 litres; the Balthazar 12 litres; and the Nebuchadnezzar 15 litres. Many wine lovers consider magnums the ideal size for ageing because the ratio of wine to oxygen in the neck is lower, so the wine develops more slowly. Opening and pouring large formats is physically demanding and requires two hands, steady technique and sometimes a cradle or pouring stand. Champagne in formats larger than a magnum is often transferred from standard bottles rather than fermented in them, which affects ageing. For pricing, large formats can be sold at a premium because of their rarity and spectacle, though their costs per litre are also higher. Make sure you have ice buckets and fridges big enough to chill them and staff trained to serve them safely. They are ideal for celebrations and group bookings. - Magnum: 1.5 litres - Jeroboam: 3 litres (Champagne) - Nebuchadnezzar: 15 litres - Magnums age more slowly - Large Champagne formats often transferred #### Half bottles and 50 cl formats Half bottles, 375 ml, and 50 cl bottles are underused on many lists. They allow couples or solo diners to try a better wine without committing to a full bottle, let tables have different wines for different courses, and are ideal for sweet wines, which are usually drunk in small quantities. Wine in half bottles ages faster than in standard bottles because the ratio of oxygen to wine is higher, so older vintages in half bottles may be more developed. The range of wines available in half bottles is limited, and they cost more per litre to produce, so the price is usually more than half of a full bottle. The 50 cl format is common for sweet wines, Tokaji, sherry and some Italian and Austrian wines. For a list, offering a small selection of half bottles, including a Champagne, a white, a red and a sweet wine, makes the list more flexible. Carafes of 250 ml or 500 ml can serve a similar purpose for by-the-glass wines. Make sure halves are listed clearly so that guests do not mistake them for full bottles. - Half bottle: 375 ml - Ages faster than a full bottle - Great for sweet wines - Price usually more than half a full bottle - Offer a small, balanced selection #### UK measures for wine In the UK, wine sold by the glass in licensed premises must be served in specified quantities under weights and measures law, and staff need to know them. Still wine by the glass must be offered in quantities of 125 ml or 175 ml, or multiples of these, and the quantity must be displayed on the menu or price list; 250 ml is a common larger serve. Since 2010, the mandatory licensing conditions in England and Wales require that customers are made aware that small measures are available, meaning 125 ml for wine by the glass. Carafes of wine must be served in 250 ml, 500 ml, 750 ml or 1 litre measures. Sparkling and fortified wines are not subject to the same specified quantities, but the measure should still be shown. Glasses used for measured serves should be lined or the measure should be poured using a stamped thimble measure. For training, staff should know how many glasses come from a bottle: six 125 ml, about four 175 ml with a little left over, and three 250 ml. Incorrect measures can result in enforcement by trading standards. - Still wine by the glass: 125 ml or 175 ml or multiples - Small 125 ml measure must be offered - Carafes: 250, 500, 750 ml or 1 litre - Measures must be displayed - Trading standards enforce #### Corkage and BYO Corkage is the fee a restaurant charges for opening and serving wine brought in by guests. Policies vary widely in the UK: some restaurants do not allow BYO at all, some allow it with a corkage fee, and some offer free corkage on certain nights to attract trade. A typical corkage fee ranges from a modest amount to a significant sum in fine dining, sometimes per bottle. The fee covers glassware, service, washing and the lost margin from not selling wine. Restaurants without an alcohol licence may allow BYO, but they must not sell alcohol or charge in a way that constitutes a sale, and they should check the licensing position for their premises. Service of BYO wine should be the same as for wine bought from the list: present, open, taste and pour. If a BYO wine is faulty, it is the guest’s responsibility, though staff should be polite and help. Some restaurants waive corkage if the guest also buys a bottle from the list. State the policy clearly on the website and booking confirmation to avoid disagreements at the table. - Corkage covers glassware, service and lost margin - Policies vary widely - Unlicensed venues must not sell alcohol - Serve BYO like list wine - State the policy in advance #### Wine flights and tasting menus Wine flights and pairings with tasting menus can add value and interest. A flight is a set of smaller pours, usually 50 to 75 ml each, that allows guests to compare wines, such as three Chardonnays from different regions or a vertical of vintages. A wine pairing matches a wine with each course of a tasting menu; pours are typically 75 to 100 ml, so a pairing for a six- or seven-course menu equals roughly a bottle per person. Pricing must take into account the cost of each wine, the waste from opened bottles and the labour of explaining each pour. Offering a standard pairing and a premium pairing gives guests a choice, and an alcohol-free pairing is now expected. The sommelier should explain each wine briefly, and the pairing should follow a logical progression from light to full and dry to sweet. Coravin can help reduce waste for premium wines. Make sure staff track pours, especially for guests who are driving or limiting their intake, and offer smaller pours or a half pairing. Pairings must be updated when menus change. - Flights: 50 to 75 ml pours - Pairings: 75 to 100 ml per course - A full pairing is roughly a bottle per person - Offer standard, premium and alcohol-free - Update pairings when the menu changes #### Wine service sequence at the table A smooth wine service follows a sequence that staff can practise until it is automatic. Offer the list when seating guests or after aperitifs, and give the host time to decide. Ask whether they would like help, and listen to what they say they like and how much they want to spend; a common technique is for the guest to point at a price on the list while discussing a wine, allowing them to signal a budget discreetly. Recommend two or three options in different styles and prices. Once the wine is chosen, bring glasses if needed, present the bottle, open it, pour the taste, then serve the table. If the wine is to be decanted, explain why. Keep track of the wine during the meal, top up glasses and suggest a second bottle before the first runs out, without pressure. If courses change, suggest a glass to match dessert or cheese. At the end, check that the guest was happy with the wine. If the wine was chosen on staff advice and the guest seemed unsure, ask for feedback. The whole sequence should feel relaxed and informed. - Offer the list early - Let guests signal budget discreetly - Recommend two or three options - Top up without pressure - Suggest dessert or cheese wines #### Temperature through the meal Service temperatures are covered elsewhere; this entry is about managing temperature during the meal. In a warm dining room, red wines poured at the correct temperature rise by several degrees in the glass within minutes, so heavier reds may need to be served slightly cooler than ideal to allow for warming. Using an ice bucket briefly or keeping red wine in a cool cellar helps. White wines, on the other hand, are often served too cold from a domestic-style fridge set at around 4 degrees, which suppresses aroma; many fine whites are better at 10 to 12 degrees. A dedicated wine fridge with zones for different styles is useful, and some restaurants store reds in a temperature-controlled room at 14 to 16 degrees. Smaller pours help keep wine at the right temperature in the glass. In summer, light reds, such as Beaujolais, Loire Cabernet Franc and Frappato, can be served chilled, and guests often appreciate the suggestion. Staff should check bottles on the table and adjust, offering an ice bucket or removing a white from one if it has become too cold. - Reds warm quickly in the glass - Domestic fridges are too cold for fine whites - Store reds at about 14 to 16°C - Smaller pours keep temperature right - Adjust on the table during the meal #### Sabrage Sabrage is the theatrical technique of opening a bottle of sparkling wine with a sabre or the back of a heavy knife, slicing off the neck and cork together. It is popular for celebrations and events, but it carries real risks and should only be done by trained staff in controlled conditions. The bottle must be well chilled, ideally colder than normal service temperature, because cold glass is more brittle at the point of impact and lower pressure reduces gushing. Remove the foil and cage, find the vertical seam of the bottle, and hold the bottle firmly at about 30 to 45 degrees, pointing away from people, windows and anything breakable. Slide the blunt back of the blade along the seam towards the neck with a firm, confident motion, striking the lip of the bottle where the seam meets the collar; the pressure inside forces the cork and a ring of glass away. Check the cut neck for glass fragments, let a little wine flow out to flush any shards and inspect the bottle before pouring. The flying cork and glass can travel a long way. Never sabre near guests or in a crowded room, and consider whether the theatre is worth the risk and the loss of a little wine. - Use a well-chilled bottle - Follow the bottle’s seam - Strike the lip where seam meets collar - Flush and inspect for glass before pouring - Never near guests or in a crowd #### Banqueting and event wine service Wine service at weddings, conferences and private dining differs from à la carte service. Wines are usually chosen in advance by the client, with a fixed allowance per guest, such as half a bottle per person with the meal plus a glass of sparkling wine for the toast. A 750 ml bottle gives about six glasses at 125 ml or five generous pours, so for a toast, plan around six to eight glasses of sparkling wine per bottle depending on glass size and pour. Agree with the client how wine will be charged: per bottle opened, on consumption, or as a package price per head, and whether unopened bottles will be credited. Chill whites and sparkling wines well in advance, since ice buckets and fridges for large volumes take time and space. Assign staff to specific tables, brief them on the wines, pouring sizes and the toast timing, and pre-pour sparkling wine for toasts if necessary to save time, though it will lose some fizz. Monitor consumption against the allowance and tell the event organiser before it runs out. Responsible service still applies: watch for guests who are drinking heavily and offer water and soft drinks throughout. Record opened bottles carefully for billing. - Wines chosen in advance by the client - Plan six to eight toast glasses per bottle - Agree charging: per bottle, consumption or package - Brief staff on pours and toast timing - Track consumption against the allowance #### The daily wine line-up A short daily line-up before service keeps wine standards high. Start by tasting every by-the-glass wine that has been open since the previous day and every newly opened bottle, checking for faults, oxidation and temperature; anything below standard is removed and logged as waste. Confirm stock: which wines are out, which vintages have changed and which wines are low, so that staff do not recommend unavailable bottles. Brief the team on any new wines, specials or pairing suggestions for the day’s menu, with a quick taste if possible. Check equipment: corkscrews, foil cutters, decanters, ice buckets, polished glasses, preservation systems and gas levels, spare stoppers and labels for opened bottles. Make sure white, rosé and sparkling wines are in the fridge at the right temperature, and that reds are not sitting next to a hot pass. Mention any large bookings or events and any guests with known preferences or allergies. The whole line-up need only take ten minutes, but it prevents most common wine service errors and keeps staff engaged and confident in what they are selling. Rotate responsibility for leading it, which builds knowledge across the team. - Taste all opened by-the-glass wines - Confirm stock and vintage changes - Brief new wines and pairings - Check equipment and temperatures - About ten minutes is enough ### Wine list building #### Structuring a wine list The structure of a wine list determines how easily guests find what they want and how much they spend. There are three common approaches. Listing by country and region is traditional and suits guests who know wine, but it can intimidate others. Listing by style, such as crisp and fresh whites, rich and textured whites, light and fragrant reds, and full and structured reds, helps less confident guests and allows staff to recommend by taste. Listing by grape is a middle ground that works for New World-heavy lists. Many lists combine approaches, grouping by style first and region second. Within each section, list wines in ascending price order, which is now standard, so that guests can scan easily. Sparkling wines usually come first, followed by whites, rosés, reds and sweet and fortified wines. By-the-glass selections are often on a separate page or on the main menu. Keep descriptions short, accurate and useful. A list for a casual restaurant may need only 20 to 40 wines, while fine dining lists can run into hundreds. The list should reflect the food and the guests, not the buyer’s ego. - Options: by region, style or grape - Ascending price order within sections - Sparkling first, sweet and fortified last - Casual lists: 20 to 40 wines - Reflect the food and guests #### List size and range Bigger lists are not always better. Every wine on a list ties up cash in stock, takes space in the cellar and adds complexity for staff, and a list that is too long can paralyse guests. A useful rule is to ensure the list covers the key styles and price points for the menu, with a few interesting choices to give it character. For a casual restaurant with 60 covers, 25 to 40 bins often works; for a wine-focused restaurant, 100 to 300; for fine dining, more is possible but requires a sommelier team and significant investment. Look at sales data: if a wine sells fewer than a few bottles a month, consider whether it earns its place. Balance familiar names, which sell themselves, with discoveries, which give staff stories and often better margins. Ensure the list covers the main grapes and styles guests request, such as Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Malbec, Rioja, Prosecco and a rosé from Provence, alongside alternatives. Include a range of price points, with most wines in the bracket where most guests spend. Review the list at least seasonally. - Every bin ties up cash and space - Casual: 25 to 40 bins - Wine-focused: 100 to 300 - Cut slow sellers regularly - Balance familiar names with discoveries #### The house wine House wines are the most important wines on most lists: they usually account for a large share of wine sales and are the first wines many guests try. A good house wine should be reliable, versatile with the menu, consistent from bottle to bottle and available in steady supply. It does not need to be the cheapest wine you can find; guests often choose house wine because they trust the restaurant’s choice, and a poor house wine damages that trust. Work with your supplier to taste several options blind, with the food, and at the serving temperature you will use. Consider offering a house white, red and rosé, and possibly a house sparkling. The house wine is also the entry price point, which anchors guests’ perception of the list’s pricing. Bag-in-box or keg wine can be a cost-effective and sustainable option for house pours in high-volume venues, provided quality is good. Review house wines at least annually and when changing menus. Staff should be able to describe the house wines confidently, including grape, region and taste, since they will be asked about them more than any other. - Often a large share of wine sales - Reliable, versatile, consistent - Taste blind with the food - Anchors price perception - Keg or bag-in-box can work for volume #### By-the-glass programme design Wine by the glass is covered elsewhere as a topic; this entry is about designing the selection. A good by-the-glass programme offers a range of styles that covers most of the menu: usually at least one sparkling, two or three whites in different styles, a rosé, two or three reds from light to full, and a sweet wine. Larger programmes, especially in wine bars, may offer 15 to 30 wines by the glass. Every opened bottle risks waste, so match the number of wines to expected volume, and use preservation systems for slower sellers. Pricing per glass usually includes a premium over the bottle price to cover wastage, so a 175 ml glass is often priced at more than a quarter of the bottle price. Rotate some selections to keep regulars interested, but keep core wines steady. By-the-glass sales give guests a low-risk way to try wines, so it is a good place to introduce discoveries. Consider offering 125 ml and 175 ml sizes, plus 500 ml carafes. Staff should open new bottles at the start of service and taste each one daily to check condition. - Cover each key style - Wine bars may offer 15 to 30 by the glass - Glass price includes a wastage premium - Use preservation for slow sellers - Taste opened bottles daily #### Price ladders and anchoring A wine list is a price ladder, and how it is built affects average spend. Most guests do not choose the cheapest wine on a list, which they fear may be poor, and many choose a wine slightly above it, the second-cheapest wine effect often discussed in the trade. Whether this is universal is debated, but the principle of the list’s structure guiding spending is widely accepted. Make sure the wines guests are likely to buy are good. Place a few wines at the top of each section to act as anchors; even if they rarely sell, they make mid-priced wines seem reasonable. Avoid big price gaps, such as jumping from £30 to £60 with nothing in between, which leaves guests without a natural trade-up option. A smooth progression, with options every few pounds in the most popular range, encourages trading up. Highlighting a few staff recommendations or wines of the month at slightly higher price points can also raise average spend. The goal is not to push guests into spending more than they want but to give them clear, fair options at each level. - Guests rarely pick the cheapest wine - Top-end wines act as anchors - Avoid large price gaps - Smooth progression encourages trading up - Fair options at every level #### Writing wine descriptions Wine descriptions on a list should help guests choose, not show off. Keep them short, typically one or two lines, and focus on style, flavour and what the wine goes with. Use plain words that guests understand: crisp, fresh, rich, juicy, light, smooth, dry, off-dry, and concrete flavours such as lemon, green apple, cherry, blackcurrant, pepper, vanilla. Avoid long lists of obscure tasting notes, technical jargon and marketing language. Mention the grape when it is not obvious from the name, especially for European wines. If the wine has a distinctive story, such as old vines, a family estate or an unusual production method, a short phrase can help. Indicate sweetness clearly for wines where it is ambiguous, such as German Riesling, Vouvray or Alsace. Descriptions must be accurate; describing a wine as organic, vegan or biodynamic requires verification. Update descriptions when vintages change, since flavour and style can differ. Staff should taste wines and contribute to descriptions, which also helps them sell. Consistency of tone across the list makes it easier to read. - One or two lines per wine - Use plain flavour words - State grape for European wines - Indicate sweetness where ambiguous - Verify claims like organic or vegan #### Seasonal list changes Changing the list with the seasons keeps it fresh, matches the menu and helps manage stock. In spring and summer, emphasise crisp whites, rosés, light and chillable reds and sparkling wines; in autumn and winter, shift towards fuller whites, structured reds, fortified wines and dessert wines. Rotating a few by-the-glass selections each season gives regulars something new to try. Plan changes around menu changes so that pairings are maintained. Before removing wines, run down stock rather than leaving bottles stranded; a good supplier relationship can allow returns or swaps in some cases. Seasonal changes are also opportunities to reprint the list, correct vintages and update prices in line with supplier increases. Use sales data from the previous year to predict demand, such as rosé peaking in warm months and port and sweet wines at Christmas. Seasonal promotions, such as a summer rosé flight or a winter fortified selection, can drive interest. Train staff on new wines before they appear on the list, with tastings and notes. Communicate changes to regular guests through newsletters or social media. - Light styles in summer, fuller in winter - Rotate some by-the-glass wines - Run down stock before delisting - Use last year’s sales to predict demand - Train staff before new wines appear #### Grower Champagne on a list Grower Champagnes, made by growers from their own grapes, have become popular with sommeliers and offer an alternative to the big brands. The code on the label tells you the type of producer: NM, négociant-manipulant, for houses that buy grapes; RM, récoltant-manipulant, for growers who make wine from their own grapes; CM, coopérative de manipulation, for co-operatives; and others such as RC and SR. Grower Champagnes often express a specific village or vineyard and may be made with lower dosage and more individual character. For a list, they offer several benefits: they provide something different from brands available in supermarkets, they often give better value for the quality, and they give staff stories to tell. However, they may lack the brand recognition that sells Champagne to celebrating guests, so balance them with at least one well-known brand. Smaller volumes can mean supply is less consistent. Describe them clearly on the list, noting the village or style, and train staff to explain the difference between a grower and a house. Guests who enjoy grower Champagne often become loyal to the list. - NM: négociant-manipulant (house) - RM: récoltant-manipulant (grower) - CM: co-operative - Often better value than famous brands - Balance with one well-known brand #### English wine on UK lists English and Welsh wines are covered as regions elsewhere; this entry is about listing them. English sparkling wine is now widely available and often priced close to non-vintage Champagne, which makes it a natural alternative for British restaurants. Still wines, especially Bacchus, Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, have improved and give the list a local story. For many guests, especially visitors from abroad, English wine is a novelty and a reason to try something new. Restaurants with a seasonal, local or British menu should consider including several English wines across styles. Prices for English wine are typically higher than for similar quality from larger producing countries, because of the costs of production in a marginal climate, small volumes and duty; staff should be ready to explain this. Highlighting the producer, county and style on the list helps. English sparkling wine by the glass is a strong seller for aperitifs and celebrations. Supporting local producers can also lead to partnerships, such as winemaker dinners and visits for staff. Check supply carefully, as small producers can sell out of a vintage. - English sparkling priced near Champagne - Bacchus, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir for still - Novelty for overseas visitors - Higher prices reflect small volumes and climate - Small producers can sell out #### Wine list mistakes Common wine list mistakes cost sales and frustrate guests. Out-of-date vintages lead to disputes when the bottle presented differs from the list. Wines listed that are out of stock disappoint guests and waste staff time; remove them or mark them clearly. Spelling errors in producer names, grapes or regions undermine credibility. Lists that are too long, poorly organised or full of jargon intimidate guests. Price gaps that leave no mid-range options push guests to the cheapest wine. Too many wines in one style and none in another limit choice, such as plenty of big reds but no light ones. Missing descriptions for unfamiliar wines leave guests guessing. Omitting the 125 ml glass size or failing to show measures breaches legal requirements. Ignoring the menu, so that the wines do not match the food, wastes pairing opportunities. Poorly trained staff who cannot explain the list negate the work of building it. Review the list regularly, ideally monthly for stock and vintages and seasonally for the full selection, and ask staff and regular guests for feedback. - Out-of-date vintages cause disputes - Remove out-of-stock wines - Avoid price gaps - Show measures, including 125 ml - Review monthly for stock and vintages #### Digital wine lists Digital wine lists on tablets, QR codes or websites offer advantages over printed lists. They can be updated instantly when vintages change, wines sell out or prices rise, which avoids errors and reprinting costs. They can include more information, such as tasting notes, producer stories, maps, pairing suggestions and photographs, which helps guests choose, and they can be searched or filtered by style, price or grape. Some systems link to stock management, so wines are removed automatically when they sell out. However, digital lists have drawbacks. Some guests find them impersonal or difficult to use, especially older guests or those without smartphones, and a QR code menu requires good mobile signal or Wi-Fi. Tablets need charging, cleaning and protection. Digital lists can also reduce interaction with staff, which may reduce recommendations and upselling. Many restaurants use a hybrid approach, with a concise printed list and a digital version with more detail. Ensure that legal information, such as measures and allergen information, is available in all formats and that a printed version is available on request. - Updates instantly - Can include richer information - Some guests find them impersonal - Hybrid approach is common - Keep a printed version available ### Wine pricing #### Mark-up methods Restaurants price wine using several methods, and understanding them helps balance profit and value. The traditional method is a multiplier: the bottle cost, excluding VAT, is multiplied by a factor, often around three, and then VAT is added. This gives high cash margins on expensive wines and can make premium bottles seem overpriced. Sliding-scale mark-ups use a higher multiplier on cheap wines and a lower one on expensive wines, encouraging guests to trade up because better wines seem relatively good value. Cash margin pricing adds a fixed or tiered cash amount to each bottle rather than a percentage, which focuses on the money earned per bottle; it makes expensive wines especially attractive. Many restaurants use a hybrid. Whichever method you choose, calculate both gross margin percentage and cash margin per bottle, because a high percentage on a cheap wine may earn less money than a lower percentage on a more expensive one. Compare your pricing with local competitors and retail prices, since many guests check retail prices online. Remember that VAT at the standard rate is added to the selling price. - Traditional: cost times about three, plus VAT - Sliding scale lowers multiplier on dear wines - Cash margin adds fixed amounts - Track both percentage and cash margin - Guests check retail prices online #### Gross profit and cash margin Two numbers drive wine profitability: gross profit percentage and cash margin. Gross profit percentage is the selling price excluding VAT minus the cost, divided by the selling price excluding VAT. For example, a wine costing £10 that sells for £36 including VAT has a net selling price of £30 at the 20 per cent standard rate; the gross profit is £20, which is about 67 per cent. Cash margin is the actual money earned, £20 in this case. A wine costing £30 that sells for £90 including VAT, at the same percentage, earns £45 in cash. If you sell it for £75 instead, the gross profit percentage falls to 52 per cent, but you still earn £32.50, more than the cheaper wine. This is the argument for lower percentage mark-ups on expensive wines: guests are more likely to buy them, and you earn more cash per bottle. Overall wine gross profit targets for UK restaurants often sit in the region of 65 to 75 per cent, but the right figure depends on the business model. Track actual gross profit against theoretical gross profit to spot waste, theft or pricing errors. - GP% = (net price minus cost) divided by net price - Remove VAT before calculating - Cash margin is money earned per bottle - Lower GP% on dear wines can earn more cash - Compare actual GP to theoretical GP #### Pricing by the glass By-the-glass pricing needs to account for wastage, the size of the serve and guest expectations. A 750 ml bottle gives six 125 ml glasses, four and a bit 175 ml glasses or three 250 ml glasses. If the glass price is set at a quarter of the bottle price for 175 ml, and some of each bottle is lost to spoilage, spillage or tasting, the restaurant loses money compared with selling the bottle. Most restaurants therefore set glass prices so that the full bottle sold by the glass earns more than the bottle price, often 15 to 30 per cent more, to cover waste. Higher prices for the larger 250 ml serve are proportionate, though guests may notice if the large glass seems poor value. Premium wines by the glass, served with a preservation system, can carry a slightly lower margin to encourage trial, given the system reduces waste. Pricing should also reflect the 125 ml requirement: the small serve must be available, and its price should be clear. Review by-the-glass sales and waste records regularly to adjust prices and the selection. - Bottle by the glass should earn more than bottle price - Typical premium 15 to 30% - Factor wastage into pricing - Small 125 ml serve must be priced clearly - Review waste records regularly #### Pricing fine and rare wines Fine and rare wines need a different pricing approach. Many top wines are bought en primeur or on allocation at prices well below their later market value, and they may be held for years. Restaurants can price them on the original cost, on current replacement cost or on market value, and each choice has implications. Pricing on original cost can offer guests remarkable value and build a reputation, but it gives away potential profit and may encourage people to buy bottles to resell. Pricing on replacement cost, what it would cost to buy the wine today, is common and protects the business. Prices should consider storage costs, insurance and the capital tied up. Applying a standard multiplier to expensive wines often produces prices that guests consider unreasonable, so many restaurants use a lower percentage mark-up or a fixed cash margin for fine wines. Check auction and merchant prices to keep prices realistic, and update them as values change. Make sure provenance is documented, especially for older wines, as counterfeit fine wines exist. Staff must handle these bottles with special care. - Price on original, replacement or market value - Replacement cost is common - Lower mark-ups for fine wines - Check auction and merchant prices - Document provenance ### Wine trade #### Working with suppliers Most UK restaurants buy wine from importers and distributors, who range from large national companies to small specialists. A good supplier relationship matters more than a single price list. Large distributors offer broad ranges, reliable delivery, credit terms and sometimes list support, such as printing or staff training, in return for exclusivity or a large share of the list. Specialist importers offer distinctive wines, often from small producers, and expertise, but may have higher minimum orders or less frequent deliveries. Many restaurants use one main supplier for core wines and one or two specialists for character. Negotiate prices, terms and support, and be wary of deals that tie the list too tightly to one supplier, which can reduce quality and flexibility. Ask for samples and taste before listing, and get confirmation of allergens, vegan status, organic certification and vintage details. Track supplier performance on accuracy, delivery and handling of faulty wine. Supplier reps can provide training, tastings and producer visits, which are valuable for staff development. Clear communication about stock levels and forecast sales helps suppliers keep wines available. - Large distributors offer range and support - Specialists offer character and expertise - Avoid over-dependence on one supplier - Taste samples before listing - Track supplier performance #### Exclusivity deals and list support Many UK restaurants, especially groups and pubs, are offered deals by suppliers in exchange for exclusivity, a large share of the list or volume commitments. These can include discounts, retrospective rebates paid when volume targets are met, free list printing, staff training, glassware, marketing support or even loans for fit-outs. Such deals can be valuable, but they come with risks: they can tie the business to one supplier’s range, limit flexibility to change wines and make it hard to switch if service or quality declines. Read contracts carefully, noting the length of commitment, volume targets, penalties and what happens if the business changes hands. Rebates should be accounted for properly in financial records, since they affect true gross profit. Free glassware and equipment may come with conditions. Consider whether the deal’s value outweighs the potential cost of a less interesting or less suitable list. For independent restaurants, flexibility and a distinctive list may be worth more than a discount. For larger groups, the purchasing power and consistency of a major supplier deal can make sense. - Deals trade exclusivity for discounts and support - Retrospective rebates depend on volume - Read length, targets and penalties - Account for rebates properly - Flexibility can be worth more #### UK alcohol duty on wine Alcohol duty is a significant part of the cost of wine in the UK and affects pricing at every level. Since the reform of 1 August 2023, duty on all alcoholic drinks, including wine, has been calculated according to alcohol by volume, so higher-strength wines pay more duty than lower-strength ones. A transitional arrangement temporarily treated wines between 11.5 and 14.5 per cent as if they were 12.5 per cent, which ended in early 2025, after which duty on these wines depended on their actual strength. Duty rates are reviewed in government Budgets, and changes are passed through the supply chain to restaurants. Because duty is a fixed amount per litre of alcohol regardless of the wine’s value, it makes up a much larger share of the cost of cheap wine than expensive wine. Draught relief applies a lower duty rate to some drinks in containers of 20 litres or more served on draught, which has made keg wine more attractive in some venues. Restaurants should understand duty changes when reviewing prices, as supplier price increases often follow. Exact current rates should be checked with HMRC or suppliers. - Strength-based duty since 1 August 2023 - Temporary 11.5–14.5% easement ended 2025 - Duty is a larger share of cheap wine’s cost - Draught relief for containers of 20 litres or more - Check current rates with HMRC #### En primeur and allocations En primeur, or buying wine as futures, means paying for wine before it is bottled and released, usually in the spring after the harvest for Bordeaux, with delivery one or two years later. Burgundy, the Rhône, Port and some other regions have similar campaigns. For restaurants, en primeur can secure wines that will be scarce and more expensive later, and buying young wines to cellar can give a list older vintages at sensible prices. However, it ties up cash for years, prices are not always lower than at release, and there is a risk if the merchant fails before delivery. Allocations are a related concept: many top producers sell limited quantities to importers, who allocate them to customers based on relationship and purchase history. Restaurants that want access to sought-after wines need to build relationships with importers and buy consistently. Allocated wines can add prestige to a list, but they should be priced fairly to avoid looking exploitative. For smaller restaurants, buying young wines through en primeur in small quantities can be a cost-effective way to build a cellar. - Pay before bottling; delivery later - Bordeaux campaign in spring after harvest - Ties up cash; merchant failure risk - Allocations favour regular buyers - Builds a cellar of older vintages #### Keg and bag-in-box wine Wine on tap from kegs, and wine in bag-in-box packaging, has grown in UK bars and restaurants. Kegs, often reusable steel or recyclable plastic, hold around 20 litres, the equivalent of over 26 standard bottles, and are served through a tap system, usually with inert gas to protect the wine. The benefits include reduced waste, because wine stays fresh for weeks once tapped, lower packaging and transport emissions, faster service and lower cost per serve. Draught relief may reduce duty on qualifying products in containers of 20 litres or more. Quality has improved, with many respected producers now offering keg wines, especially for fresh, young styles like Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, rosé and light reds. The disadvantages include the cost of installing taps and lines, the need for regular line cleaning, limited range and the perception among some guests that wine on tap is inferior. Bag-in-box is simpler, with no installation, and works well for house wines, especially in high-volume venues. Present keg wine positively, explaining the freshness and environmental benefits. - Kegs often hold about 20 litres - Stays fresh for weeks once tapped - Lower packaging and transport emissions - Lines need regular cleaning - Works best for fresh, young styles #### Sommelier roles and structure Sommeliers manage wine in restaurants and bars, but the role varies. In a large fine-dining restaurant, a head sommelier oversees buying, list building, staff training, stock control and service, supported by assistant sommeliers and commis sommeliers who handle service, cellar tasks and learning. In smaller restaurants, one sommelier may combine all these roles, or the general manager or a senior waiter may handle wine. Wine bars may employ a wine director who oversees several venues. Sommeliers must know wine, pairing and service, and must be able to sell, manage budgets and train others. Many hold qualifications from bodies such as the Wine and Spirit Education Trust, the Court of Master Sommeliers, or the Institute of Masters of Wine, though experience is as important as certificates. Pay varies widely, with head sommeliers at top restaurants earning more than assistants, and service charge and tronc arrangements affecting total earnings. Sommeliers increasingly cover other drinks, such as sake, cocktails, beer and alcohol-free pairings. A good sommelier pays for themselves through increased wine sales and better stock control. - Head, assistant and commis sommeliers - Smaller venues combine roles - Qualifications: WSET, Court of Master Sommeliers, IMW - Experience matters as much as certificates - Role now covers other drinks too #### WSET and wine qualifications The Wine and Spirit Education Trust, based in London, is the most widely recognised provider of wine qualifications for the UK trade. Its wine qualifications run from Level 1, an introduction for beginners, through Level 2, covering the main grapes and regions, Level 3, an in-depth study of wines worldwide with a blind tasting exam, to the Level 4 Diploma in Wines, a demanding qualification that typically takes around two years and covers viticulture, winemaking, business and detailed regional study. The Court of Master Sommeliers focuses on service and offers the Introductory, Certified, Advanced and Master Sommelier qualifications, with the Master Sommelier exam among the hardest in the industry. The Institute of Masters of Wine awards the Master of Wine title after a rigorous programme and exams including a research paper; there are only a few hundred MWs worldwide. Other qualifications include those focused on specific regions and courses for spirits and sake. For restaurants, supporting staff through WSET Levels 2 and 3 improves wine knowledge and sales, and many suppliers offer training or contribute to course fees. - WSET Levels 1 to 4 - Level 4 Diploma typically about two years - Court of Master Sommeliers focuses on service - Masters of Wine number a few hundred worldwide - Suppliers may support training #### Training floor staff on wine Training all floor staff on wine, not just sommeliers, improves sales and guest experience. Start with the basics: the house wines and by-the-glass selection, which staff will be asked about most often. Hold regular short tastings, perhaps weekly before service, covering a few wines at a time, with simple descriptions and pairing suggestions. Use the menu: taste wines with dishes so staff can describe the matches from experience. Provide written notes or a digital guide with key facts for each wine: grape, region, style, flavours, pairings and allergens. Teach service skills, such as opening still and sparkling wine, pouring, presenting and dealing with faults, and practise until they are confident. Role-play recommending wines and handling questions about price. Encourage interest by offering qualifications, supplier visits and incentives, such as recognition for wine sales. Make sure staff understand legal requirements, such as measures, responsible service and age verification under Challenge 21 or Challenge 25 policies. Training should be ongoing, with new staff inducted and existing staff refreshed when the list changes. - Start with house and by-the-glass wines - Weekly short tastings - Taste wines with the menu - Practise service skills - Include legal requirements #### Wine dinners and events Wine dinners and tasting events attract guests, build loyalty and sell wine. A typical wine dinner pairs several courses with wines from one producer, region or theme, often with the winemaker or a supplier representative present to talk about the wines. Plan the menu and wines together, tasting them in advance to ensure good matches. Price the event to cover food, wine, staff and any guest speaker costs, with a fixed price per person. Allow for pours of around 75 to 125 ml per wine, so that the total amount of alcohol is reasonable, and provide water and food throughout. Promote the event to regulars and through the supplier’s and producer’s channels. Smaller events, such as tastings of a few wines with snacks, can be run in quieter periods. Events can be used to introduce new wines to the list or to clear stock. Suppliers often help with costs or provide wines at reduced prices. Make sure staff are briefed and that service is well-organised, with glasses and pours prepared in advance. Collect guest feedback and contact details, with consent, for future events. - Pair courses with one producer or theme - Taste menu and wines in advance - Pours around 75 to 125 ml - Suppliers often help with costs - Collect contact details with consent #### Retail and take-home wine Many restaurants sell wine to take home, either from a retail shelf, through an online shop or by allowing guests to take unfinished bottles. Selling wine for consumption off the premises requires the premises licence to permit off-sales, so check the licence before starting. Retail prices are usually lower than restaurant list prices, because they do not include service, and some restaurants offer a discount on bottles bought to take home. Guests who enjoy a wine with their meal are often keen to buy a bottle, so this can be a useful additional revenue stream. Under licensing law in England and Wales, guests can take home a partly consumed bottle of wine they bought with a meal, provided the premises licence permits off-sales; recorking it and placing it in a bag is good practice. Online sales require additional considerations, such as age verification at the point of sale and delivery, and compliance with distance selling rules. Some restaurants run wine clubs or subscriptions, offering regular deliveries of selected wines. Retail stock must be managed separately from restaurant stock to keep accurate records. - Off-sales must be permitted by the licence - Retail prices usually lower than list - Unfinished bottles can go home if licence allows - Online sales need age verification - Manage retail stock separately #### Sustainability on the wine list Sustainability is increasingly important to guests and staff, and wine lists can reflect this in several ways. Packaging is the largest contributor to wine’s carbon footprint, mainly due to heavy glass bottles; choosing wines in lighter bottles, kegs, bag-in-box or other alternative formats can reduce emissions. Transport matters, with shipping by sea in bulk and bottling closer to market having lower emissions than air freight or road transport over long distances. Organic, biodynamic and sustainably certified wines reduce chemical use in vineyards; certifications include organic logos, Demeter and Biodyvin for biodynamic, and various national sustainability schemes. Local wines, such as English and Welsh wines, reduce transport distances. Waste reduction through preservation systems, careful stock management and recycling also contributes. However, be careful about claims: the UK Competition and Markets Authority has guidance on green claims, and any environmental claims on a list must be accurate and substantiated. Highlighting sustainable choices without exaggeration lets guests make informed decisions and aligns the list with the restaurant’s values. - Glass bottles are the biggest footprint - Kegs and lighter bottles reduce emissions - Certifications: organic, Demeter, Biodyvin - Local wines cut transport - Green claims must be substantiated #### Allergen and dietary information for wine Wine is subject to allergen rules like any other food or drink. Under UK food law, sulphites above 10 mg per litre must be declared, as must egg and milk products used in fining if they remain detectable in the final wine. Restaurants must be able to provide allergen information for every item they sell, including wine, under the Food Information Regulations, and for food prepared on the premises, information must be given in writing or verbally with a written signpost. Natasha’s Law, which requires full ingredient and allergen labelling on prepacked for direct sale foods, does not usually apply to wine poured in a restaurant but highlights the importance of allergen information. Staff should know which wines contain sulphites (almost all), which may contain egg or milk residues and which are vegan. Record allergen information for every wine on the list in a central document, updated when wines or vintages change, and confirm it with suppliers. Guests with sulphite sensitivity, such as some asthmatics, may ask about low-sulphite wines; staff should explain that no wine is entirely sulphite-free. - Sulphites over 10 mg/l must be declared - Egg and milk fining declared if detectable - Allergen info needed for every item - Keep a central allergen record - No wine is entirely sulphite-free #### Responsible wine service Responsible service is a legal and ethical duty for licensed premises in the UK. Under the Licensing Act 2003 in England and Wales, it is an offence to knowingly sell alcohol to a person who is drunk or to obtain alcohol for them, and to sell alcohol to anyone under 18, with limited exceptions such as 16 and 17 year olds drinking beer, wine or cider with a table meal when accompanied by an adult, where the adult buys the drink. Scotland has its own licensing laws, which differ in some respects, including on promotions. Age verification policies, such as Challenge 25, are mandatory in England and Wales. The UK Chief Medical Officers’ guidelines recommend not regularly drinking more than 14 units a week, spread over several days. A 175 ml glass of 13 per cent wine contains about 2.3 units, and a 750 ml bottle at that strength about 9.75 units. Staff should monitor guests’ drinking, offer water, suggest smaller measures and lower-alcohol options, and refuse service when appropriate, with the support of management. Training on responsible service protects guests and the licence. - Selling to a drunk person is an offence - 16–17s may drink wine with a table meal if an adult buys it - Age verification policy is mandatory - 14 units a week guideline - 175 ml of 13% wine is about 2.3 units ### Cellar and stock #### Stock control and cellar books Good stock control is essential for wine profitability. Wine is valuable, portable and easy to steal, and small losses add up. Keep a cellar book or stock system that records every bottle received, sold, transferred, used for tasting or returned. Conduct regular stock counts, at least monthly, and reconcile them against sales data from the till; any discrepancy shows waste, theft, pricing errors or till mistakes. Use bin numbers that match the list and the cellar location, which helps staff find wines quickly and reduces errors. Record by-the-glass wines carefully, including how much is poured and what is wasted. Breakages, spoiled bottles and staff tastings should be logged. Limit access to the cellar and keep high-value wines locked. Rotate stock on a first in, first out basis for wines meant to be drunk young, while allowing ageing wines to mature. Use stock data to identify slow sellers, reorder points and seasonal trends. Many electronic point-of-sale systems integrate with stock management, which reduces manual work and improves accuracy. Assign responsibility to a named person. - Record every movement of stock - Count at least monthly - Reconcile against till sales - Bin numbers match list and cellar - Lock high-value wines #### Cellar conditions Wine should be stored in cool, dark, stable conditions. The ideal temperature for long-term storage is around 10 to 15 degrees Celsius, with stability more important than the exact figure; large fluctuations cause the wine to expand and contract, which can push air past the cork. Heat is the biggest enemy: storage above about 25 degrees for any length of time can cook a wine, giving stewed, flat flavours. Humidity of around 60 to 70 per cent prevents corks from drying out, though modern evidence suggests bottles stored on their side keep corks moist from inside. Light, especially sunlight and fluorescent light, can damage wine, causing a fault called light strike, particularly in clear bottles. Vibration may disturb sediment, and strong smells can, in theory, affect wines over long periods. Store bottles with natural corks on their side; screwcap bottles can be stored upright. Many restaurants lack ideal cellars and use temperature-controlled wine fridges or cabinets. Wines kept in a warm bar or by a kitchen will deteriorate quickly, so store only what is needed for service near heat sources. - Ideal around 10 to 15°C, stable - Heat above about 25°C damages wine - Humidity about 60 to 70% - Light can cause light strike - Store corked bottles on their side #### Opened bottle management Managing opened bottles is a major part of controlling wine waste. Once opened, wine begins to oxidise, and how long it lasts depends on the style. Light, aromatic whites and rosés typically last two to three days refrigerated with a stopper; fuller whites and most reds three to five days; sparkling wines with a proper stopper one to three days; fino and manzanilla a few days to a week refrigerated; oxidative fortified wines such as tawny port, Madeira and oloroso much longer. Use proper stoppers, store opened whites and reds in the fridge, and bring reds back to serving temperature before pouring. Label each opened bottle with the date and time it was opened. Inert gas systems that blanket wine with argon or nitrogen can extend life, and needle-based systems such as Coravin allow pouring without removing the cork. Taste opened wines at the start of each service. If a wine is past its best, remove it from sale; serving tired wine damages trust. Track waste, and use the information to adjust the by-the-glass selection. - Label opened bottles with date and time - Light whites and rosés: 2 to 3 days - Most reds: 3 to 5 days - Oxidative fortified wines last longest - Taste opened wines before each service #### Screwcaps, corks and alternatives Closures affect how wines age and how they are served. Natural cork is traditional and allows a small amount of oxygen through over time, which many believe helps wines develop; it carries a risk of cork taint caused by TCA, though improved cork production and screening have reduced the incidence. Technical corks, made from cork granules, and treated corks aim to eliminate taint. Synthetic corks made from plastic are cheap but can let in too much oxygen over a few years and may be hard to remove. Screwcaps, common in Australia, New Zealand and increasingly elsewhere, eliminate cork taint, preserve fresh aromas and allow different levels of oxygen transfer depending on the liner; they can occasionally cause reduction. Glass stoppers, such as the Vinolok, are elegant but expensive. For service, screwcap wines should still be presented and opened at the table: hold the cap in one hand and twist the bottle with the other, so the cap breaks cleanly. Explain to guests who doubt screwcaps that many top producers use them, and that they are not a sign of cheap wine. - Natural cork allows slight oxygen transfer - TCA causes cork taint - Screwcaps preserve fresh aromas - Screwcaps can cause reduction - Open screwcaps at the table too #### Heat damage and storage faults Heat damage, sometimes called cooked wine, happens when wine is exposed to high temperatures during transport or storage. Signs include a cork pushed partly out of the bottle, wine seeping around the capsule, a sticky capsule, and in the glass, stewed, jammy, flat flavours and a brownish colour in whites or reds. Wines shipped in summer without temperature control, left in hot cars or stored in warm bars or kitchens are at risk. Light strike, the other common storage fault, affects wines in clear or pale glass exposed to sunlight or fluorescent light and gives smells of cabbage, wet cardboard or struck match; sparkling wines and rosés in clear bottles are especially susceptible. Prevention is better than cure: check deliveries for signs of heat damage, store wines away from heat and light and use temperature-controlled storage. If you suspect heat damage, return the wine to the supplier. Train staff to recognise these faults. Wine faults are covered more broadly elsewhere; this entry focuses on preventable storage and handling problems within the restaurant’s control. - Signs: pushed cork, seepage, sticky capsule - Flavours: stewed, flat, brownish - Light strike gives cabbage or cardboard notes - Clear bottles most at risk - Check deliveries for heat damage #### Ageing wine in a restaurant cellar Some restaurants hold wines to age, offering guests mature vintages that are hard to find. This can build a reputation and allow premium prices, but it requires space, money and patience. Wines suitable for ageing include classified Bordeaux, Burgundy, Barolo, Brunello, Rioja Gran Reserva, northern Rhône, vintage port, top Riesling and Chenin Blanc, vintage Champagne and some New World wines. Most wines are made to be drunk within a few years and do not improve with age. Buy young, through en primeur or on release, and store in ideal conditions; record purchase prices and dates. Taste periodically, perhaps one bottle every year or two, to track development, and release wines to the list when they are drinking well. Pricing can be based on replacement cost, which may be much higher than the original price. A small cellar programme can be started by putting aside a few cases of a reliable wine each year. Older vintages must be served with care, including decanting and checking for faults. Insurance should cover the cellar’s value. - Most wines do not improve with age - Suitable: Bordeaux, Burgundy, Barolo, vintage port - Buy young; record prices and dates - Taste periodically to track development - Insure the cellar #### Inventory value and cash flow Wine stock is money sitting on shelves, and managing it well affects cash flow. A large cellar can tie up tens of thousands of pounds that could otherwise be used to pay bills, invest or reduce debt. Calculate stock turn, how many times the stock is sold and replaced in a year, by dividing the cost of wine sold by the average stock value. Faster-turning stock frees up cash, while slow-moving stock should be reviewed. Many restaurants aim to hold no more than a few weeks of stock for core wines, ordering frequently from suppliers who deliver regularly, while holding more for wines that are scarce or ageing. Agree payment terms with suppliers, such as 30 days, to align payments with sales. Avoid overbuying on promotions unless the wine will sell. Dead stock, wine that no longer sells, should be cleared through staff sales, special offers, by-the-glass promotions or wine dinners. For fine wine cellars, separate the investment in ageing stock from the operating stock, so that you can see whether the cellar is earning its keep. - Stock turn = cost of sales ÷ average stock - Slow stock ties up cash - Hold a few weeks of core wines - Agree supplier payment terms - Clear dead stock actively #### Wine fraud and provenance Counterfeit and misrepresented wines are a risk at the top end of the market, and restaurants that buy fine and rare wines must protect themselves. High-profile fraud cases have involved fake bottles of famous Burgundies and Bordeaux, often from vintages that are rare and valuable. Signs of potential fraud include prices that seem too good to be true, inconsistent labels, capsules or corks, incorrect fonts or spelling, unusual bottle shapes, missing or wrong lot numbers and an unclear chain of ownership. Buy fine wines from reputable merchants, importers or auction houses who guarantee provenance and offer recourse if a wine proves to be fake. Ask for documentation showing where the wine has been stored and who owned it. Many top producers now use anti-counterfeiting features, such as security labels, holograms or unique codes that can be checked online. Store fine wines securely and keep records. If you suspect a wine is counterfeit, do not sell it; contact the seller and, if necessary, the producer. Provenance also matters for condition, since poorly stored genuine wines can be damaged. - Fakes target rare, valuable vintages - Warning signs: inconsistent labels, odd prices - Buy from reputable sources - Ask for storage and ownership history - Many producers use anti-counterfeit features ### Selling on the floor #### Reading the table Selling wine well starts with reading the guests. Notice who is likely to choose the wine, whether they seem confident or unsure, what the occasion is and how much they might want to spend. A celebration table may welcome Champagne; a business lunch may want a reliable, not too expensive, bottle; a couple on a date may appreciate a recommendation that makes them feel looked after. Ask open questions, such as what they usually enjoy or what they are eating, rather than assuming. Listen for clues: a guest who says they like big reds is not the same as one who says they find reds heavy. Respect budgets: offering options at different price points lets guests choose without embarrassment. Never make a guest feel ignorant for not knowing wine. Some guests want detailed information, while others just want a quick suggestion, so adapt your style. Observe pacing, too: a table eating quickly may not want a wine that needs decanting. If the host defers to someone else, address that person. The aim is to match the wine to the guests and the occasion, not to sell the most expensive bottle. - Notice who chooses and the occasion - Ask open questions - Listen for style clues - Offer options at different prices - Never make a guest feel ignorant #### The two-option recommendation When guests ask for a recommendation, offering two or three options works better than one. A single recommendation can feel like a hard sell, and if the guest does not like it they may feel awkward. Two or three options in different styles or price points give them a choice and a sense of control. A useful technique is to offer one wine close to what they asked for, one slightly more interesting or adventurous, and perhaps one at a higher price for an occasion. Describe each in a sentence: the grape, the style and why it suits their food. Point to the wines on the list so the guest can see the prices. If the guest has indicated a budget, keep within it or just above it. Pay attention to their reaction and help them decide, but do not push. Once they choose, affirm the choice positively. This approach builds trust and often leads to guests trying something new or trading up slightly, because they feel well advised rather than sold to. It also reduces the chance of rejected bottles. - Offer two or three options - One familiar, one adventurous, one premium - Describe each in a sentence - Point to prices on the list - Affirm the guest’s choice #### Talking about price Many guests are anxious about wine prices and may not want to discuss their budget openly, especially in front of others. Staff can help by being discreet. The classic technique is to point to wines on the list while describing them, allowing the guest to indicate a price range without saying it aloud. Asking whether they have a style or a price in mind gives them the option to say either. Avoid assuming a guest’s budget based on appearance or age. Offer options across a range, and if the guest chooses an inexpensive wine, be as positive about it as you would be about an expensive one. Never sneer or show disappointment. If a guest asks for value, recommend wines that over-deliver for their price, such as lesser-known regions or grapes. If they want to celebrate, offer premium options but let them choose. Be honest: if a cheaper wine is better for the food, say so. Building trust on price leads to guests returning and trusting your recommendations, which over time increases spend more reliably than a hard sell. - Point to wines to let guests signal budget - Do not assume budget from appearance - Be equally positive about cheaper choices - Recommend value wines when asked - Honesty builds long-term spend #### Describing wine without jargon Wine can sound intimidating, so describing it in plain language helps guests choose. Use simple words for body: light, medium or full, comparing them to skimmed, semi-skimmed and whole milk if useful. Describe acidity as fresh, crisp or zingy; tannin as soft, smooth, grippy or firm; sweetness as dry, off-dry or sweet. Use familiar flavours: lemon, apple, peach, cherry, plum, blackcurrant, pepper, chocolate, vanilla, toast. Avoid obscure descriptors and technical terms unless the guest is interested. Comparisons help: if you like Sauvignon Blanc, you might enjoy this Grüner Veltliner; this Spanish red is similar to a Rioja but a bit fuller. Link the wine to the food: this will cut through the richness of the pork belly. Mention one interesting fact, such as a family producer or volcanic soil, to make the wine memorable. Keep it short, perhaps two or three sentences, and watch for the guest’s interest before going further. Confident, simple descriptions are more persuasive than long technical ones. Train staff by tasting together and practising descriptions aloud. - Body: light, medium, full - Use familiar flavour words - Compare to wines guests know - Link the wine to the food - Keep it to two or three sentences #### Suggesting a second bottle Suggesting a second bottle at the right moment increases sales without pressure. Watch the level in the first bottle and the pace of the meal. When about a glass per person remains and the table is still eating or likely to stay, ask whether they would like another bottle of the same or to try something different, perhaps a wine better suited to the next course. Timing matters: asking too early feels pushy, and asking too late leaves guests without wine. Offer a choice of the same wine or an alternative, and if the main course has a different character, suggest a match. If the table is driving or appears to have had enough, do not push; offering water, a soft drink or a glass of something light is better. For larger groups, ordering multiple bottles at once may suit them. Be aware of responsible service: refusing to serve someone who is drunk is a legal requirement under the Licensing Act 2003. Second-bottle suggestions work best when guests are enjoying themselves and trust the staff. - Ask when about a glass each remains - Offer the same or an alternative - Match the next course - Do not push drivers or tipsy guests - Serving drunk guests is an offence #### Upselling by the glass By-the-glass sales offer many opportunities to increase spend without pushing. When a guest orders a house wine by the glass, staff can mention a premium option, such as a better Chablis or a Coravin pour, as an alternative, with a brief description and price. Suggesting a 175 ml or 250 ml serve instead of 125 ml can increase sales, but staff must always offer the 125 ml size where requested, and should not assume a larger serve. Recommending a glass of sparkling wine as an aperitif, a dessert wine with pudding or a port or Madeira with cheese adds sales while improving the meal. Pairing suggestions are especially effective: a glass of Sauternes with the crème brûlée or a sherry with the starters. Staff should taste the wines on offer so that they can describe them confidently. Premium by-the-glass wines, especially when served using a preservation system, give guests access to wines they might not buy by the bottle and give the restaurant a better cash margin per glass. Upselling should always feel like helpful advice, not a sales pitch. - Mention a premium alternative - Always offer the 125 ml size - Suggest aperitif and dessert wines - Taste wines to describe confidently - Premium glasses give strong cash margin ### Pairing in practice #### Wine and cheese pairing Wine and cheese are traditional partners, but not every combination works, and many red wines are poor with cheese. Tannin can clash with soft and creamy cheeses, making the wine taste metallic, and strong blue cheeses overwhelm delicate wines. White wines, sweet wines and fortified wines are often better matches. Classic pairings include goat’s cheese with Sauvignon Blanc, especially Sancerre; Comté with vin jaune or aged Chardonnay; Brie and Camembert with Champagne or light, fruity reds; Stilton with port or Sauternes; Roquefort with Sauternes; Parmigiano Reggiano with Lambrusco or aged Italian reds; aged Cheddar with tawny port, oloroso sherry or a medium-bodied red; washed-rind cheeses like Époisses with Gewürztraminer or a sweet wine; and Manchego with dry sherry or Rioja. The principle is to match intensity and to use acidity or sweetness to balance salt and fat. Sweet wines with salty blue cheeses are a classic contrast. For a cheese course, offering a small flight of wines or a recommended glass with each cheese is a good way to increase sales and improve the experience. - Tannic reds often clash with soft cheese - Goat’s cheese with Sancerre - Stilton with port - Roquefort with Sauternes - Sweet wines balance salty blues #### Pairing with spice and chilli Spicy food is challenging for wine. Chilli heat is amplified by alcohol and tannin, making high-alcohol, tannic reds taste hot and bitter. Better matches are wines with low to moderate alcohol, some residual sweetness, fresh acidity and aromatic fruit. Off-dry Riesling, especially German Kabinett or Spätlese, is a classic match because its sweetness soothes heat and its acidity refreshes. Gewürztraminer and Pinot Gris from Alsace suit aromatic spices like ginger and lemongrass. Grüner Veltliner and Albariño work with less fiery dishes. Rosé, sparkling wines and light, fruity, chilled reds, such as Beaujolais or Zweigelt, can also work. For Indian cuisine, consider the dish: a creamy, mildly spiced korma may suit a richer white like Viognier, while a fiery vindaloo needs off-dry white or even beer. Thai dishes with lime, chilli and herbs suit aromatic whites with acidity. Sichuan pepper’s numbing effect pairs well with off-dry whites and sparkling wines. Recommending wines for spicy dishes builds trust because many guests assume wine and spicy food do not mix. - Alcohol and tannin amplify heat - Off-dry Riesling is a classic match - Alsace whites suit aromatic spices - Chilled light reds can work - Match the specific dish, not the cuisine #### Pairing with fish and seafood The old rule of white wine with fish is a useful starting point, but the preparation and sauce matter more than the fish itself. Oysters and raw shellfish suit crisp, high-acid, unoaked whites such as Muscadet, Chablis, Picpoul and Champagne. Delicate white fish, such as sole or plaice, works with light, dry whites like Albariño, Soave or white Burgundy. Richer fish, such as turbot or halibut with butter sauces, suits fuller whites like Meursault, white Rioja or white Pessac-Léognan. Oily fish like salmon, tuna and mackerel can pair with light reds, such as Pinot Noir or Gamay, as well as rosé and fuller whites. Smoked fish suits Riesling, Gewürztraminer or sparkling wine. Fish and chips is a good match for Champagne or English sparkling wine, as the acidity and bubbles cut through the batter. Shellfish with garlic suits Vermentino or Provence rosé. Avoid tannic reds with fish, as tannin can create a metallic taste with fish oils. Spicy seafood dishes, such as Thai curries, need aromatic, off-dry whites. - Preparation matters more than fish - Oysters with Muscadet or Chablis - Rich fish with fuller whites - Salmon and tuna can take light reds - Fish and chips with sparkling wine #### Pairing with red meat and game Red meat is the natural home for red wine, and the tannins in wine bind with the proteins and fats in meat, making both taste softer. Match the weight of the wine to the dish. Beef steaks suit full-bodied reds: Cabernet Sauvignon, Malbec, Syrah, Rioja Reserva or Barolo. Leaner cuts like fillet can work with medium-bodied reds, while fattier cuts like ribeye can handle more tannin. Roast lamb is a classic match for claret, Rioja and Rhône reds. Pork, which is lighter, suits fuller whites, rosé or lighter reds like Pinot Noir or Beaujolais. Duck works with Pinot Noir, especially Burgundy or Central Otago, and with Rhône reds. Game birds, such as pheasant and partridge, suit Pinot Noir, Nebbiolo and older Bordeaux. Venison and wild boar, with stronger flavours, suit Syrah, Brunello and Barolo. Stews and braises with rich sauces work with Southern Rhône, Languedoc and Italian reds. Sauces matter: a peppercorn sauce suits Syrah, a red wine sauce suits a wine similar to the one used in cooking, and a creamy sauce may suit a white. - Tannin and protein soften each other - Fatty cuts handle more tannin - Lamb with claret or Rioja - Duck with Pinot Noir - Venison with Syrah or Barolo #### Pairing with vegetarian and vegan dishes Vegetarian and vegan dishes cover a huge range of flavours, and pairing them requires thinking about the dominant flavours, textures and sauces. Earthy dishes with mushrooms and lentils suit Pinot Noir, Nebbiolo, or aged reds with savoury notes. Roasted root vegetables pair with medium-bodied reds or fuller whites. Fresh green vegetables, such as asparagus, peas and beans, suit crisp whites like Sauvignon Blanc, Grüner Veltliner and Bacchus. Tomato-based dishes need wines with good acidity, such as Sangiovese, Barbera or Italian whites. Rich, creamy dishes, such as risottos, suit Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc or white Rhône wines. Spicy vegetarian dishes, common in Indian and Thai cuisine, suit off-dry and aromatic whites. Cheese-based vegetarian dishes follow cheese pairing principles. Tofu and tempeh take on the flavours of their sauces. Some ingredients are hard for wine: artichokes contain cynarin, which can make wine taste sweet; and raw garlic and vinegar can overpower delicate wines. For vegan guests, ensure the recommended wine is vegan, checking the fining agents with the supplier. - Mushrooms and lentils with Pinot Noir - Green vegetables with crisp whites - Tomato dishes need acidity - Artichokes make wine taste sweet - Check vegan status of the wine #### Pairing with desserts Dessert wine pairing is covered elsewhere in outline; this entry focuses on practical matches. The rule is that the wine should be at least as sweet as the dessert, or the wine will taste thin and sour. Fruit tarts and fruit-based desserts suit Moscato d’Asti, late-harvest Riesling or Sauternes. Crème brûlée and custard desserts work with Sauternes, Tokaji Aszú or a sweet Loire Chenin. Chocolate is difficult because of its bitterness and richness; it pairs best with fortified red wines such as Banyuls, Maury, ruby or late bottled vintage port, or with Recioto della Valpolicella and Pedro Ximénez sherry. Toffee and caramel desserts suit tawny port, Malmsey Madeira, oloroso dulce or Pedro Ximénez. Sticky toffee pudding works with Rutherglen Muscat. Christmas pudding and mince pies suit tawny port, Pedro Ximénez, sweet oloroso or Malmsey. Ice cream is cold and can dull wine; pouring Pedro Ximénez over vanilla ice cream is an easy combination. Lemon desserts need wines with high acidity, such as late-harvest Riesling or Tokaji. Offer dessert wines by the glass, in 50 to 75 ml pours, to encourage guests to try them. - Wine must be as sweet as the dessert - Chocolate with Banyuls or port - Toffee with tawny or Malmsey - Lemon desserts need high-acid sweet wines - Pour 50 to 75 ml #### Pairing with Sunday roasts and British classics British food has its own pairing logic. Roast beef with Yorkshire pudding and gravy suits claret, Rioja, Malbec or Côtes du Rhône; the gravy’s richness calls for a medium- to full-bodied red. Roast lamb with mint sauce is trickier, because mint sauce’s vinegar can clash with wine; a fruity red with good acidity, such as a Rioja Crianza or Chilean Cabernet, copes better. Roast chicken is versatile and works with Chardonnay, Pinot Noir or Beaujolais. Roast pork with crackling and apple sauce suits off-dry Riesling, Chenin Blanc or a light red. Fish and chips with sparkling wine is a well-known match. Shepherd’s pie and cottage pie suit Rhône or Languedoc reds. Steak and kidney pie suits a robust red like Malbec or Shiraz. A ploughman’s lunch with Cheddar and pickles suits a dry cider, but also a fruity red or off-dry white. Game pie suits Pinot Noir or northern Rhône Syrah. English sparkling and still wines are increasingly popular choices for British menus, giving a local story that guests appreciate. - Roast beef with claret or Rioja - Mint sauce’s vinegar clashes with wine - Roast pork with off-dry Riesling - Fish and chips with sparkling - English wines suit British menus #### Pairing with Asian cuisines Asian cuisines vary enormously, and pairing must reflect the dish. Japanese food, with its delicate flavours and umami, suits crisp, low-oak whites, such as Koshu, Chablis, Grüner Veltliner and Champagne; sushi and sashimi pair well with dry sparkling wines and light whites, while teriyaki and grilled meats suit Pinot Noir. Chinese cuisine varies by region: Cantonese dim sum suits Champagne and off-dry Riesling; Peking duck pairs with Pinot Noir; spicy Sichuan dishes suit off-dry whites and sparkling. Korean barbecue, with its fermented, spicy and sweet flavours, suits fruity reds like Zinfandel, Grenache or Beaujolais, as well as off-dry whites. Vietnamese dishes, with fresh herbs and lime, suit Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling and Albariño. Thai cuisine suits aromatic, off-dry whites such as Gewürztraminer and Riesling. Indian cuisine, covered under spicy food, suits off-dry whites, rosé and fruity reds. Umami-rich dishes can make tannic wines taste bitter, so softer, fruitier wines work best. Restaurants serving Asian cuisines can build lists that show wines in a new light, and guests often welcome advice. - Sushi with dry sparkling or crisp whites - Peking duck with Pinot Noir - Korean barbecue with fruity reds - Umami makes tannic wines bitter - Off-dry whites suit spicy dishes #### Pairing principles in brief Food and wine pairing is covered elsewhere in general terms; here are the core principles staff can apply quickly. First, match weight: light dishes with light wines, rich dishes with fuller wines. Second, acidity in food needs acidity in wine; a wine less acidic than the dish will taste flat. Third, sweetness in food makes dry wine taste thinner and more sour, so sweet dishes need sweeter wines. Fourth, salt softens tannin and can make wine taste fruitier, and it pairs well with sweetness and acidity. Fifth, fat and protein soften tannin, which is why steak suits Cabernet. Sixth, umami and bitterness in food increase the perception of bitterness and astringency in wine, so pair umami-rich dishes with fruitier, softer wines. Seventh, chilli heat is amplified by alcohol and tannin. Finally, consider the sauce and the dominant flavour, not just the protein. Regional pairings, such as Chianti with Tuscan food, often work because the cuisine and wine evolved together. Pairing is not an exact science, and personal preference matters, so offer guidance but respect the guest’s choice. - Match weight - Acidic food needs acidic wine - Sweet food needs sweeter wine - Umami increases bitterness - Consider the sauce, not just the protein